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G4ꔞh…q]0̥۠DpxR?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ#,BN$ ?YkP.+s;t9a}DLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df$ b6q @@ ?%i;9K0v\Wk$v(s)f.SR8<)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0̥۠MNDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df$b6q a%i;9K0v\Wk$v(s)f.SSakGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ#,BN$$ ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNe,jy s‘1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=ppPtňPiĒOB,NR(] 9읺 YH GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8ik!Ca  bP6m`= evN{'n2b5FU s‘1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p @0TňPiĂx"ͤ.X>h…q]0̥۠MQ:dpxR?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӃ#,BN$$ YkP.+s;t9)kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ[X  8@ (EI]}х \a'=ACK1rl}DLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df b6q !?%i;9K0v\Wk$v(s)f.S-@#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4@ hӉ$ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNe,es s‘1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p pňPiĂx"ͤ.X>h…q]0̥۠L9HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8 a(Ӊ (EI]}х \a'=ACK1rn, GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iIGX I `@%i;9K0v\Wk$v(s)f.S-9HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8@B?mb(l4A@?LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ[X  8@p0YkP.+s;t9)@#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4@Ӊ$ YkP.+s;t9)) s‘1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p @0TňPiĂx"ͤ.X>h…q]0̥۠NQHDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df ňPiĂ bP6m`= evN{'n2bYB8<)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0̥۠mykGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ,BN$ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNe,|`ykGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ#,BN$#ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNe,ňeDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df b6q `X"ͤ.X>h…q]0̥۠8j1 kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӄ,BN$P"@JfvrmgaB츮IdPR4׍ DLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df$ %b6q !%i;9K0v\Wk$v(s)fZL GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iGX I a dX"ͤ.X>h…q]0̥۠9j\28<)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞdpxR?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)pxR?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)h…q]0̥۠8Ő9HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8! hӉ(EI]}х \a'=ACK0qßP GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8i@k!Ca bP6m`= evN{'n2`ȀHpR?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ,BN$ ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNe,ǍX28<)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞe9HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G82?mb(l4@ALӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӃ,BN$$ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNe,ɰaRDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0dfb6q !$X"ͤ.X>h…q]0̥۠6l*< GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iAk!Ca  bP6m`= evN{'n2dVDpxR?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)h…q]0̥۠ՙJVdpxR?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ,BN$p"@LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ#,BN$`YkP.+s;t9UCB8<)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0s5O2 Y 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p`pBQk!CaOB,NR(] 9́3T PX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4`AӉ1(EI]}х \a'=>jd CkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df`4ňPiĒB,NR(] 9́3T'E)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞ%i;9K0v\Wk$w6U)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0s5o)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞLӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӂ#,BN$'YkP.+s;f`CkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df  b6q $P6m`= evN{'s`}սq0X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4䃀,BN$PYkP.+s;fm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӒ [X  8@pp0OYkP.+s;fHm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӂ#,BN$ 'YkP.+s;fd6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iQk!CaH  G B,NR(] 9́3V2X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4`HӉ1(EI]}х \a'=>jZCkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0dfAk!CaHA!?.%i;9K0v\Wk$w6[a6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iAk!Ca P6m`= evN{'s`}ռ)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0s5o-)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞLӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӒ[X  8@0PYkP.+s;fʤ6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iBQk!Ca B,NR(] 9́3VX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4 (Ӊ (EI]}х \a'=>j]*CkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df Bk!CaB,NR(] 9́3V0HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8H?mb(l4@BB ' ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNygCkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0dfb6q `a?%i;9K0v\Wk$w6[Y 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p@ RQk!CaHH(/N%i;9K0v\Wk$w6[!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)jm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӒ J?mb(l4A@B\JfvrmgaB츮Idllm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ [X  8@BLJfvrmgaB츮IdlfTHƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G80"?mb(l4A@?LJfvrmgaB츮Idlи)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞjG)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞjAHƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8 $,BN$ YkP.+s;fBX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4@ HӉ1(EI]}х \a'=>jq6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8i@Bk!Ca B,NR(] 9́3V q 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=r@A@k!CaH9 8"ͤ.X>h…q]0s5om`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӂ[X  8pB?lJfvrmgaB츮Idlq 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p`Bk!CaH B,NR(] 9́3VS!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)h…q]0s5qRX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4 Ӊ(EI]}х \a'=>icG-O!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)h…q]0s4()=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞLӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӃ[X  8AA?|JfvrmgaB츮IdlXbm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӃ,BN$ ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNEԆHƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G80!!Ӊ (EI]}х \a'=>icGQcm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӃ,BN$$ ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNC(CkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df tňPiāOB,NR(] 9́3K:THƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8088J?mb(l4A (EI]}х \a'=>icGP6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iB@k!CaP6m`= evN{'s`}Ǝ*CkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df $%b6q$"ͤ.X>h…q]0s4[m`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӃ[X  80@ /#YkP.+s;f4q 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p` ňPiāؔ"ͤ.X>h…q]0s4m`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӃ#,BN$O#YkP.+s;fCkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df b6q "ͤ.X>h…q]0s5\cm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӂ[X  8 @/JfvrmgaB츮IdlIS 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p p dňPiĀx"ͤ.X>h…q]0s5В2X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4`Ӊ$ ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNbm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ#,BN$$'ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNa6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iGX H8@0ON%i;9K0v\Wk$w6t$)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞLӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӂ [X  8 PBq(EI]}х \a'=>k'6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8i@k!CaH09 _%i;9K0v\Wk$w6t$HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G808J?mb(l4AA(EI]}х \a'=>k(CkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df  b6q `?&%i;9K0v\Wk$w6t%CkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df ňPiāx"ͤ.X>h…q]0s5ДX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4d#,BN$ ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNjm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ,BN$p 0YkP.+s;f)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞLӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ,BN$$ #YkP.+s;fRX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4!Ӊ (EI]}х \a'=>ka 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p  @tňPiāP6m`= evN{'s`}YĆHƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8 *?mb(l4@AI(EI]}х \a'=>k̆HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G9 D,BN$ġm'g)v{F.ˊqN0p)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0s5=Hm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӄ,BN$ @'YkP.+s;fΫ!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)k}X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4 $,BN$p /YkP.+s;f)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0s6- 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p Pp4ňPiĂ B,NR(] 9́3aA̜m`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӂ#,BN$` OJfvrmgaB츮Idl Hm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӃ[X  80`YkP.+s;fƒÈm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӂ,BN$'YkP.+s;fU`CkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df 0ňPiĂด"ͤ.X>h…q]0s60LHƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8 H*?mb(l4@ABBLJfvrmgaB츮IdlIs 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=pBBBQk!Ca B,NR(] 9́3c X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4 HӉ 1(EI]}х \a'=>la ̆HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8$#,BN$Aġm'g)v{F.ˊqNJ)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0s60CkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df b6q A &%i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌%'ȆHƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G89 hӉ$'ġm'g)v{F.ˊqN)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞLӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӃ#,BN$$ ġm'g)v{F.ˊqN)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞlePbF)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0s62X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4 `Ӊ(EI]}х \a'=>leUR6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iQk!Ca   B,NR(] 9́3c*!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)leQ 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p0 DňPiābP6m`= evN{'s`}ʣgRX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4` hӉ$ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNFҤ6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8i$b6q @A ด"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62Hm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӂ[X  8@@oJfvrmgaB츮IdlUjY 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=pAk!Ca  B,NR(] 9́3c*6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iAAk!CaH (HG B,NR(] 9́3c*!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)leU6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iAk!CaH80O B,NR(] 9́3c*K!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)leUCkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df 0$ňPiā"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62j 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=pBAAk!Ca B,NR(] 9́3c*4!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)leR8HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8J?mb(l4I(EI]}х \a'=>leRX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4A D,BN$ 'ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNKm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ[X  8"I'ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNK4HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G9 Ӊ q(EI]}х \a'=>leVi 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p p ňPiāB,NR(] 9́3c*s!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)h…q]0s62yr!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӂ#,BN$ $ /YkP.+s;fUHm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ#,BN$ ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNC!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)leP^CkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df  b6q @Ă"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0s62Hm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ[X  8` p_YkP.+s;fUkCkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df DňPiāด"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62_RX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4Ӊġm'g)v{F.ˊqN[@X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4 AӉ$ ġm'g)v{F.ˊqN[J)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞleWID6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8ik!Ca HH G8"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4 HӉ$'YkP.+s;fUq6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iGX I ! 8"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62a 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p PňPiāP6m`= evN{'s`}ʯZm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӒHB?mb(l4@ġm'g)v{F.ˊqN^)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0s62X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4` Ӊ1(EI]}х \a'=>leWҤ6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8i@AQk!Ca B,NR(] 9́3c*X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4d,BN$pYkP.+s;fUy!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)leX(HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8 (Ӊ1(EI]}х \a'=>leX)d6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iAAk!CaP6m`= evN{'s`}ʰPy 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p0@0ňPiĂ"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62 CkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df`2Qk!Ca P6m`= evN{'s`}ʰPCkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df2Ak!CaH08 B,NR(] 9́3c*jm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ,BN$ġm'g)v{F.ˊqN`i 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=rAABQk!Ca P6m`= evN{'s`}ʱy 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=rBAk!CaHG B,NR(] 9́3c*Ő)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞLӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁH J?mb(l4I$ \JfvrmgaB츮IdlV'LHƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8 "?mb(l4@q(EI]}х \a'=>leY*6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8ik!CaH( /B,NR(] 9́3c*ȰX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4@@d#,BN$$ YkP.+s;fUX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4`,BN$ $ ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNd)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞLӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӒ[X  8002@\JfvrmgaB츮IdlVF)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞLӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӄ[X  8@0rJfvrmgaB츮IdlVl 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p` pňPiĂ P6m`= evN{'s`}ʳy 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p0 ňPiā bP6m`= evN{'s`}ʳ0X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4a,BN$$YkP.+s;fUHm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ [X  82A?LJfvrmgaB츮IdlVqY 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p@pPTňPiĀP6m`= evN{'s`}ʳm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ,BN$ #ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNhؐ)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞleZI6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8ik!Ca H? B,NR(] 9́3c*F)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞleZN6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iAIGX H 8(7N%i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌JHƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8*?mb(l4@I1(EI]}х \a'=>leZTX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4hӉ$ 'YkP.+s;fU\CkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df!b6q D B,NR(] 9́3c*ҳ!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)h…q]0s62^CkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0dfp@TňPiĂH B,NR(] 9́3c*m`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӃ#,BN$#ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNM2d6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8i GX H0((N%i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌lCkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df$b6q @P6m`= evN{'s`}ʦф6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8i@BBQk!CaHG B,NR(] 9́3c*i 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p0ňPiĂbP6m`= evN{'s`}ʧ<HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8 `HӉ 1(EI]}х \a'=>leQ)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0s62)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0s6RTHƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8 *?mb(l4@Iġm'g)v{F.ˊqN)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0s6SQn 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=pp@k!Ca  P6m`= evN{'s`}ME6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iAk!CaH80O B,NR(] 9́3e50!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)h…q]0s6STN 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=rI GX H( dด"ͤ.X>h…q]0s6STX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4A!Ӊ (EI]}х \a'=>lVd6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8i GX H0( ?B,NR(] 9́3e2`y 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p bBk!Ca HG%i;9K0v\Wk$w6͔cCkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df %b6q a &%i;9K0v\Wk$w6͔a)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0s6S-!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)l[m`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӂ,BN$$ 'YkP.+s;fe<X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4` Ӊ1(EI]}х \a'=>l[Y 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p0pdňPiĂH B,NR(] 9́3e2ad6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8ik!Ca  bP6m`= evN{'s`}LX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4`HӉ 1(EI]}х \a'=>l\2X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4A @Ӊġm'g)v{F.ˊqNr0X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4@`hӉ(EI]}х \a'=>lYCkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df  !b6q "ͤ.X>h…q]0s6SCkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0dfdňPiĂP6m`= evN{'s`}N  1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p@`pdňPiăP6m`= evN{'s`}Nm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ#,BN$ $#ġm'g)v{F.ˊqN$ad6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iAk!Ca O B,NR(] 9́3e9.n!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)l"2X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4 @Ӊq(EI]}х \a'=>l'-6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8ik!CaO B,NR(] 9́3e99!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)h…q]0s6S"X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4D,BN$JfvrmgaB츮Idl)S 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p0 dňPiă"ͤ.X>h…q]0s6SX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4!hӉ$  ġm'g)v{F.ˊqN)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0s6lY 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p@rAk!Ca B,NR(] 9́3i%h…q]0s4}`5d6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8ik!CaP6m`= evN{'s`} )=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0s4}btm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ,BN$ `YkP.+s;!KH 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p pDňPiāB,NR(] 9TՇ$HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8 @ ?mb(l4@ 'YkP.+s;!Kx׈d6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8ik!Ca bP6m`= evN{'uU)u5o1 HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8 @B?mb(l4A@?q(EI]}х \a'=Fd6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8i$ňPiāP6m`= evN{'uU)u5o[0 HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G80 ?mb(l4@ (EI]}х \a'=ʀd6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8i GX I @ 8"ͤ.X>h…q]0UA ]M[Jd6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iBQk!CaB,NR(] 9TռL!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)%i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBSVP HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G9 aӉ  q(EI]}х \a'=i 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p0tňPiĒH8 B,NR(] 9Tռm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ,BN$  ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNRjZ2X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4a HӉ 1(EI]}х \a'=)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0UA ]M[`CkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df b6q P6m`= evN{'uU)u5o2X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4Ӊ$'YkP.+s;!Kx!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӒH0?mb(l4@\JfvrmgaB츮Id.-xCkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df b6q ``%i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBSV T 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p@`$ňPiĂP6m`= evN{'uU)u5o)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]0UA ]MsV,HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8(Ӊ 1(EI]}х \a'=K!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)h…q]0UA ]MqHm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ#,BN$ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNRk:" !R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӂ#,BN$  ''YkP.+s;!Kan0X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4 (Ӊġm'g)v{F.ˊqNRlƎ!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)h…q]0UA ]M HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8 (?mb(l4A@Aq(EI]}х \a'=A 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p P@DňPiĒ B,NR(] 9T2m`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӄ,BN$@PJfvrmgaB츮Id.9S!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ,BN$YkP.+s;!K53q 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p0@`tňPiĂ"ͤ.X>h…q]0UA ]M HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8! hӉġm'g)v{F.ˊqNRleULq 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p0 `ňPiă"ͤ.X>h…q]0UA ]MHƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8  ?mb(l4AA?LJfvrmgaB츮Id.UXxX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4@ (Ӊ$? ,JfvrmgaB츮Id.U\ !R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)h…q]0UA ]MCkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df b6q "ͤ.X>h…q]0UA ]M(HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8?mb(l4A 1(EI]}х \a'=VR 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=pP dňPiāؔ"ͤ.X>h…q]0UA ]MIHƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8 H@J?mb(l4A@q(EI]}х \a'=TLHƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8 @02?mb(l4@Aq(EI]}х \a'=)d6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8i@k!CaH8 ?&%i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBSe5: 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p0$ňPiĂx"ͤ.X>h…q]0UA ]M,<!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӂ#,BN$ `YkP.+s;!KeACkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df DňPiĀP6m`= evN{'uU)u6 8HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G88 82?mb(l4I$ġm'g)v{F.ˊqNRm*d6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iQk!CaHH887N%i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBShhט CkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df  b6q @&%i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBSk5I 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p 0``$ňPiĀ  B,NR(]lh̝&--cVXDX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4,BN$ 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H( 7B,NR(]lh̝ Y9HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G88*?mb(l4I$ġm'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNe,c@#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4ࠀӉ (EI]}х -M9ACK0t9HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8)!Ӊ (EI]}х -M9ACK0t9HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G9 Ӊ$ YkP.+4Ù;t9R/ s‘1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p@ňPiĒ  bP6m`= ev[8s'n2`Lp@#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4 HӉ(EI]}х -M9ACK0p s‘1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p@$ňPiăX"ͤ.X>h…q]sƎY 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=r@k!CaH0O B,NR(]lh̝́1ql8HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8H?mb(l4@AA@(EI]}х -M9>5sdX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4Ӊ(EI]}х -M9>5t6EԆHƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G82?mb(l4I$ġm'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNf)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞh…q]s $6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iGX H(0@0 B,NR(]lh̝́1%Ui 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p @pňPiĂx"ͤ.X>h…q]s"X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4Ӊ (EI]}х -M9>4E"X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4䄣,BN$$ġm'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNr 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p 0`ňPiāP6m`= ev[8s's`}h!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)4Fdm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӒ[X  8PP/JfvrmgaB츮`Gdl鸲X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4@aӉ $ ġm'g)v{F.ˊ 4pN0HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8 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1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=ppPdňPiĂX"ͤ.X>h…q]ٮFo!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ[X  8AALJfvrmgaB츮`GdYde*!BX#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4 Ӊ(EI]}х -M9]f)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞLӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӂ[X  8@bIġm'g)v{F.ˊ !R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)D6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iB@k!CaH 7B,NR(]G5Q 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p@P tňPiĀP6m`= ev͉̙ 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p@pdňPiĀX"ͤ.X>h…q]tm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӄ[X  8`@R,JfvrmgaB츮:CTa 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p `@DňPiĀx"ͤ.X>h…q]t)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞ%i;9K0v\Wm0 "X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4@@hӉ(EI]}х h)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞLӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ,BN$`0YkP.+m`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӃ[X  82A,JfvrmgaB츮:Ta 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p `0ňPiāx"ͤ.X>h…q]u6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iABQk!Ca bP6m`= evk"X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4 Ӊ$ġm'g)v{F.ˊ2X#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4䂄,BN$@o YkP.+ 1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p`ňPiĂX"ͤ.X>h…q]u@Hm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁH?mb(l4AAAALJfvrmgaB츮:@D6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8ik!Ca bP6m`= ev!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)h…q]u@m`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӂ[X  8@\JfvrmgaB츮:@6 GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8iAk!CabP6m`= ev!R?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)h…q]u@m`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ#,BN$  ġm'g)v{F.ˊCkDLd\b?tl\b?-rI%Qf048-ӪRxN0XxX<0df`@4ňPiĀด"ͤ.X>h…q]uAm`kGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ#,BN$2ALJfvrmgaB츮:)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞLӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӄ#,BN$ $'$YkP.+ACKX|fd2C1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p ňPiĀ B,NR(]̥۠9j\28<)=88-8KfIG|  G4ꔞLӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӁ#,BN$$$ ġm'g)v{F.ˊPR\9HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8(@B?mb(l4@ $ġm'g)v{F.ˊPR69HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaB)G8 J?mb(l4AB,JfvrmgaB츮e,Ԛ@#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4Ӊ(EI]}х t9UT s‘1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p2BQk!Ca bP6m`= ev(s)f9K s‘1ӍqӉӍqDi$GɚpުSNI8Øec1Rm`h…R?=p@@ňPiā"ͤ.X>h…q] Y\LYkGMkG%NI$>LӆRuJO)+rCk{F,qӂ[X  80` ? YkP.+ACK0qßP GDON5#N&N5#٧$Q&iCzM:'aNJ9K!= AH8i@k!Ca bP6m`= ev(s)f9|d#"c'elӒI(4ၡhTRNJq0cх {4䀂#,BN$_JfvrmgaB츮e,MpxR?"&2zq1:q6Zq19$3N[Ji)h…q]ӪRxN0XxX<0dYkP.+[2X<)=88-8KfQf@(ph4U1̮ͤ.X>h…q]ӪRxN0XxX<0d89 @H(@H!a I?01?Oх YkPfvrmgaB츭YkP.+s4fvrmgaB츮Idq1lh,NR(] 9읺  6m`= evN{'s`zi;9K0v\Wk$wUPB"ͤ.X>h…q]ɠ6m`= ev[8s'kdDfvrmgaB츮`GdPQYkP.+4Ù;EI]}х -M9Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNri;9K0v\Wn2"ͤ.X>h…q]0b*jڐYkP.+s;\L[%ZZP"ͤ.X>h…q]0b*ji!i;9K0v\Wk$vJTCkfvrmgaB츮Idq1lik5fH"ͤ.X>h…q]0b*j:,"ͤ.X>h…q]0b*j¤6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNVWV6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNVW:6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNVKbƼ@"ͤ.X>h…q]0b*ilYlY EI]}х \a'=ŲUذ<"ͤ.X>h…q]0b*il[q EI]}х \a'=ŲUظ2X 6m`= evN{'kdKYtHm`,NR(] 9읮&--f|m`,NR(] 9읮&--fØX 6m`= evN{'kdKY丘CkfvrmgaB츮Idq1lik50"ͤ.X>h…q]0b*k9<YkP.+s;\L[%ZZ`(ʄ6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNVX'L"ͤ.X>h…q]0b*k9Jl!i;9K0v\Wk$vJU"X 6m`= evN{'kdKYUHm`,NR(] 9읮&--f EI]}х \a'=ŲU!i;9K0v\Wk$vJ&=6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNVCPX 6m`= evN{'kdKY1FP"ͤ.X>h…q]0b*h|m`,NR(] 9읮&--ffBX 6m`= evN{'kdKYP"ͤ.X>h…q]0b*k EI]}х \a'=ŲUYĆ"ͤ.X>h…q]0b*k+2X 6m`= evN{'kdKY`"ͤ.X>h…q]0b*k&YkP.+s;\L[%ZZ{7X 6m`= evN{'kdKY`XYkP.+s;\L[%ZZyÈm`,NR(] 9읮&--f:d6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNV^` EI]}х \a'=ŲU2CkfvrmgaB츮Idq1lik6 CkfvrmgaB츮Idq1lik6 N EI]}х \a'=ŲU2"X 6m`= evN{'kdKYCkfvrmgaB츮Idq1lik4Bm`,NR(] 9읮&--fRJ!i;9K0v\Wk$vJdj将"ͤ.X>h…q]0b*l^P"ͤ.X>h…q]0b*leWX 6m`= evN{'kdKYa@X 6m`= evN{'kdKYjŐYkP.+s;\L[%ZZ͉!i;9K0v\Wk$vJ!`CkfvrmgaB츮Idq1lik6C "ͤ.X>h…q]0b*lD6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNVe(3m`,NR(] 9읮&--fSaq!i;9K0v\Wk$vJ)І"ͤ.X>h…q]0b*lZa EI]}х \a'=ŲULCkfvrmgaB츮Idq1lik6S.2 EI]}х \a'=ŲUL2X 6m`= evN{'kdKYu"X 6m`= evN{'kdKYCkfvrmgaB츮Idq1lik6Ρ EI]}х \a'=ŲU1]Hm`,NR(] 9읮&--fL\dCkfvrmgaB츮Idq1lik6Y!i;9K0v\Wk$vJJԆ"ͤ.X>h…q]0b*iΣ0"X 6m`= evN{'kdKY:m`,NR(] 9읮&--fo\N EI]}х \a'=ACK dfvrmgaB츮IdPR fvrmgaB츮IdPRk=pzi;9K0v\Wk$v(s)k6SbY,NR(] 9읺 Zͥ`9"ͤ.X>h…q]0̥۠lHfvrmgaB츮IdPRXV<Am'g)v{F.ˊqNe,ō|V!B8=YkP.+s;t96lPfvrmgaB츮IdPRXY sEI]}х \a'=ACK1k,NR(] 9읺 Y-U- sEI]}х \a'=ACK1ejfvrmgaB츮IdPRYlXTAm'g)v{F.ˊqNe,ŖŇ@6m`= evN{'n2bb sEI]}х \a'=ACK1ea9"ͤ.X>h…q]0̥۠ذ sEI]}х \a'=ACK1ea9"ͤ.X>h…q]0̥۠طdpzi;9K0v\Wk$v(s)f,. sEI]}х \a'=ACK1et,NR(] 9읺 Y-4"8=YkP.+s;t9[idpzi;9K0v\Wk$v(s)f,s sEI]}х \a'=ACK1e,NR(] 9읺 Y`)pzi;9K0v\Wk$v(s)f,>3|@6m`= evN{'n2bF,NR(] 9읺 Yp}fvrmgaB츮IdPR[u\8=YkP.+s;t9 c@6m`= evN{'n2b5,NR(] 9읺 YԧAm'g)v{F.ˊqNe,j[f@6m`= evN{'n2b5.0 sEI]}х \a'=ACK1rufvrmgaB츮IdPR\apzi;9K0v\Wk$v(s)f.SSC@6m`= evN{'n2b56 sEI]}х \a'=ACK1r`y,NR(] 9읺 Y,Am'g)v{F.ˊqNe,jz sEI]}х \a'=ACK1rufvrmgaB츮IdPR\*Dpzi;9K0v\Wk$v(s)f.STeR8=YkP.+s;t9)'LAm'g)v{F.ˊqNe,j@6m`= evN{'n2b5R sEI]}х \a'=ACK1rl}fvrmgaB츮IdPR\[ ,Am'g)v{F.ˊqNe,es sEI]}х \a'=ACK1rn sEI]}х \a'=ACK1rn,Am'g)v{F.ˊqNe,e<8=YkP.+s;t9)@6m`= evN{'n2b2fvrmgaB츮IdPR\\8Am'g)v{F.ˊqNe,r@6m`= evN{'n2bYB8=YkP.+s;t9EL sEI]}х \a'=ACK1tuV8=YkP.+s;t9AHfvrmgaB츮IdPR]jAm'g)v{F.ˊqNe,Fidpzi;9K0v\Wk$v(s)f.5[^@6m`= evN{'n2b>E<Am'g)v{F.ˊqNe,ňefvrmgaB츮IdPR5FɐAm'g)v{F.ˊqNe,MxِAm'g)v{F.ˊqNe,Rީ9"ͤ.X>h…q]0̥۠9j\28=YkP.+s;t9,28=YkP.+s;t9.&,Am'g)v{F.ˊqNe,6J,NR(] 9읺 YfvrmgaB츮IdPR9fvrmgaB츮IdPRpzi;9K0v\Wk$v(s)fp.CfvrmgaB츮IdPR69"ͤ.X>h…q]0̥۠:lzfvrmgaB츮IdPR6>dpzi;9K0v\Wk$v(s)fR8=YkP.+s;t9Rki,NR(] 9읺 Y9"ͤ.X>h…q]0̥۠8,Am'g)v{F.ˊqNe,.&,Am'g)v{F.ˊqNe,|iB8=YkP.+s;t9>D2CEI]}х \a'=ACK0q`y,NR(] 9읺 Y8=YkP.+s;t9UPBpzi;9K0v\Wk$v(s)fh…q]0̥۠MHq,NR(] 9읺 Y2fvrmgaB츮IdPR̚کy,NR(] 9읺 Ya¥9"ͤ.X>h…q]0̥۠6l*<Am'g)v{F.ˊqNe,ɇ*fvrmgaB츮IdPR̛@6m`= evN{'n23Veِ9"ͤ.X>h…q]0̥۠ՙBز8=YkP.+s;t9(,Am'g)v{F.ˊqNe.f5,NR(] 9읺 \Yq sEI]}х \a'=ACK2]HfvrmgaB츮IdPRj̥+28=YkP.+s;t9 t@6m`= evN{'n23XfvrmgaB츮IdPRUefvrmgaB츮IdPRk:" sEI]}х \a'=ACK]fvrmgaB츮Idl,"ͤ.X>h…q]0s5O0!i;9K0v\Wk$w6S̒m`,NR(] 9́3T'EYkP.+s;fsm`,NR(] 9́3Vb`8"ͤ.X>h…q]0s5o&4!i;9K0v\Wk$w6[ƽb6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNzi EI]}х \a'=>j޶d6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNza6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNzX 6m`= evN{'s`}սt EI]}х \a'=>j޺CkfvrmgaB츮IdlYkP.+s;f孤6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNyl0"ͤ.X>h…q]0s5o,=6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNyn0"ͤ.X>h…q]0s5o-T"ͤ.X>h…q]0s5o.U!i;9K0v\Wk$w6[km`,NR(] 9́3VRX 6m`= evN{'s`}ռL!i;9K0v\Wk$w6[8X 6m`= evN{'s`}ռ<YkP.+s;f凐YkP.+s;f0"ͤ.X>h…q]0s5oوYkP.+s;fY!i;9K0v\Wk$w6[\Hm`,NR(] 9́3V0 EI]}х \a'=>j@̆"ͤ.X>h…q]0s5oԆ"ͤ.X>h…q]0s5om`,NR(] 9́3Vkm`,NR(] 9́3VNYkP.+s;fHm`,NR(] 9́3V6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNxP"ͤ.X>h…q]0s5oƸX 6m`= evN{'s`}ռ\`CkfvrmgaB츮Idlk6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNxYkP.+s;fCkfvrmgaB츮IdlfCkfvrmgaB츮IdlJ EI]}х \a'=>icG-O!i;9K0v\Wk$w6,h"ͤ.X>h…q]0s4(YkP.+s;f4tX 6m`= evN{'s`}ƎCkfvrmgaB츮IdlXЁ6Am'g)v{F.ˊqN T"ͤ.X>h…q]0s4YkP.+s;f4uRX 6m`= evN{'s`}ƎǐYkP.+s;f4u EI]}х \a'=>icGPʐYkP.+s;f4u CkfvrmgaB츮IdlXԥHm`,NR(] 9́3K8ռ"ͤ.X>h…q]0s4lm`,NR(] 9́3K8<"ͤ.X>h…q]0s5]X 6m`= evN{'s`}uq!i;9K0v\Wk$w6t$̆"ͤ.X>h…q]0s5В2X 6m`= evN{'s`}BEd6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNa6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNRX 6m`= evN{'s`}BN.6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNeHm`,NR(] 9́3] =Hm`,NR(] 9́3] =!i;9K0v\Wk$w6t$"ͤ.X>h…q]0s5ДN!i;9K0v\Wk$w6t%CkfvrmgaB츮IdlJSa EI]}х \a'=>k X 6m`= evN{'s`}BS`X 6m`= evN{'s`}BTm`,NR(] 9́3] R!i;9K0v\Wk$w6t%AYkP.+s;fYkP.+s;fRX 6m`= evN{'s`}YX 6m`= evN{'s`}YĆ"ͤ.X>h…q]0s5[fCkfvrmgaB츮Idl0y EI]}х \a'=>kzX 6m`= evN{'s`}ל6Am'g)v{F.ˊqN9CkfvrmgaB츮Idl:"ͤ.X>h…q]0s5>Q EI]}х \a'=>k} EI]}х \a'=>l"[RX 6m`= evN{'s`}Ps'2X 6m`= evN{'s`}Pp|*CkfvrmgaB츮Idl !i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌$"ͤ.X>h…q]0s60L"ͤ.X>h…q]0s60RX 6m`= evN{'s`}A4"ͤ.X>h…q]0s60|fCkfvrmgaB츮IdlJ EI]}х \a'=>la(̲X 6m`= evN{'s`}Rxy EI]}х \a'=>la)>D6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNYkP.+s;fYkP.+s;fCkfvrmgaB츮IdlJCkfvrmgaB츮IdlJ,"ͤ.X>h…q]0s621#Hm`,NR(] 9́3c*pX 6m`= evN{'s`}ʪ{m`,NR(] 9́3c*YkP.+s;fUQ!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62BX 6m`= evN{'s`}ʪHm`,NR(] 9́3c*uHm`,NR(] 9́3c*Hm`,NR(] 9́3c*Hm`,NR(] 9́3c*4"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62ԲX 6m`= evN{'s`}ʫh EI]}х \a'=>leUd6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNVX 6m`= evN{'s`}ʫm`,NR(] 9́3c*K!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌Hm`,NR(] 9́3c*YkP.+s;fU,hCkfvrmgaB츮IdlT!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌\^CkfvrmgaB츮IdlT,"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62fYkP.+s;fUaYkP.+s;fUdCkfvrmgaB츮IdlUYkP.+s;fU`RX 6m`= evN{'s`}ʡȆ"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62{m`,NR(] 9́3c*X 6m`= evN{'s`}ʡCkfvrmgaB츮IdlT=!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌YkP.+s;fUHm`,NR(] 9́3c*CkfvrmgaB츮IdlT<אYkP.+s;fUX 6m`= evN{'s`}ʣX 6m`= evN{'s`}ʣ2X 6m`= evN{'s`}ʣ!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌("ͤ.X>h…q]0s62_RX 6m`= evN{'s`}ʭy EI]}х \a'=>leV҄6Am'g)v{F.ˊqN\\m`,NR(] 9́3c*sm`,NR(] 9́3c*tm`,NR(] 9́3c*X 6m`= evN{'s`}ʮ0q EI]}х \a'=>leWX 6m`= evN{'s`}ʮ16Am'g)v{F.ˊqN]%YkP.+s;fUu"CkfvrmgaB츮IdlUƐYkP.+s;fUz!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62X 6m`= evN{'s`}ʯ,i EI]}х \a'=>leWX 6m`= evN{'s`}ʯq6Am'g)v{F.ˊqN^YkP.+s;fU{m`,NR(] 9́3c*!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌YkP.+s;fU|Hm`,NR(] 9́3c*+!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌D"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62X 6m`= evN{'s`}ʯHm`,NR(] 9́3c*X 6m`= evN{'s`}ʯ96Am'g)v{F.ˊqN`X 6m`= evN{'s`}ʰRm`,NR(] 9́3c*A6Am'g)v{F.ˊqN`X 6m`= evN{'s`}ʰPCkfvrmgaB츮IdlVVCkfvrmgaB츮IdlVYkP.+s;fUm`,NR(] 9́3c*ŐYkP.+s;fUCkfvrmgaB츮IdlV'L"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62BX 6m`= evN{'s`}ʲ,<"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62YkP.+s;fUhCkfvrmgaB츮IdlVO!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌# !i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌)"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62X 6m`= evN{'s`}ʲHm`,NR(] 9́3c*ʭ!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌#Hm`,NR(] 9́3c*4X 6m`= evN{'s`}ʳem`,NR(] 9́3c*6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNfad6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNgX 6m`= evN{'s`}ʳm`,NR(] 9́3c*p!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌FĆ"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62!"X 6m`= evN{'s`}ʴm`,NR(] 9́3c*FYkP.+s;fUCkfvrmgaB츮IdlV EI]}х \a'=>leZUD6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNiRm`,NR(] 9́3c*Ү!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌J̆"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62 !i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌CdCkfvrmgaB츮IdlV!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌U !i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌Q!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌VCkfvrmgaB츮IdlV!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌SL!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌i!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͌lCkfvrmgaB츮IdlT0"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62YkP.+s;fU96Am'g)v{F.ˊqND^CkfvrmgaB츮IdlTFfYkP.+s;fU4"ͤ.X>h…q]0s62YkP.+s;fUCkfvrmgaB츮IdlT{m`,NR(] 9́3d9 EI]}х \a'=>li!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͔[CkfvrmgaB츮Idl)L*CkfvrmgaB츮Idl)Oy EI]}х \a'=>lD6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNYkP.+s;fj-!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͔[CkfvrmgaB츮Idl)y EI]}х \a'=>lҤ6Am'g)v{F.ˊqN`y EI]}х \a'=>lR$6Am'g)v{F.ˊqN`X 6m`= evN{'s`}MO:6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNYkP.+s;fjCkfvrmgaB츮Idl)'L"ͤ.X>h…q]0s6STX 6m`= evN{'s`}MTm`,NR(] 9́3e2`y EI]}х \a'=>l[BX 6m`= evN{'s`}LY EI]}х \a'=>l['2X 6m`= evN{'s`}L"ͤ.X>h…q]0s6S-6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNn,"ͤ.X>h…q]0s6S-,"ͤ.X>h…q]0s6S-CkfvrmgaB츮Idl)CkfvrmgaB츮Idl)̆"ͤ.X>h…q]0s6S.FCkfvrmgaB츮Idl)iYkP.+s;fp]@m`,NR(] 9́3e8.d6Am'g)v{F.ˊqN#*YkP.+s;fpYkP.+s;fr\CkfvrmgaB츮Idl)ȷL"ͤ.X>h…q]0s6SX 6m`= evN{'s`}NN|m`,NR(] 9́3e9:!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͔'Ȇ"ͤ.X>h…q]0s6SX 6m`= evN{'s`}NT[Hm`,NR(] 9́3e9Q!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͛*CkfvrmgaB츮IdlI)!i;9K0v\Wk$w6ͥ^!i;9K0v\Wk$w6͠8X 6m`= evN{'s`} ՐYkP.+s;foІ"ͤ.X>h…q]0s4}btm`,NR(] 9TՇ$"ͤ.X>h…q]0UA ]MXxAm`,NR(] 9Tռk2X 6m`= evN{'uU)u5o1 "ͤ.X>h…q]0UA ]M[֣@2X 6m`= evN{'uU)u5o[0 "ͤ.X>h…q]0UA ]M[e@2X 6m`= evN{'uU)u5o]*YkP.+s;!KyjCkfvrmgaB츮Id. "ͤ.X>h…q]0UA ]M[ˈCkfvrmgaB츮Id.ʠ EI]}х \a'=Jd6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNRjYd6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNRjYŀd6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNRjZ2X 6m`= evN{'uU)u5o,<!i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBSVYkP.+s;!Kx|fYkP.+s;!Kx!i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBSVd6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNRjam`,NR(] 9Tվu0!i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBSV!i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBSV!i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBSV T EI]}х \a'=km`,NR(] 9T!i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBSWYkP.+s;!K'YkP.+s;!K=am`,NR(] 9Td6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNRk EI]}х \a'=cN!i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBS\X 6m`= evN{'uU)u5\CkfvrmgaB츮Id.뜤CkfvrmgaB츮Id.{m`,NR(] 9T=t6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNRkQ EI]}х \a'=箬Y EI]}х \a'=K!i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBS\eY2X 6m`= evN{'uU)u5Vq!i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBS\aa EI]}х \a'=y!i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBS^a6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNRlƎ!i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBS`X 6m`= evN{'uU)u6 0"X 6m`= evN{'uU)u6 02X 6m`= evN{'uU)u6 {2X 6m`= evN{'uU)u6 ʙ EI]}х \a'= !i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBS`kfX 6m`= evN{'uU)u62S2X 6m`= evN{'uU)u628"ͤ.X>h…q]0UA ]M"ͤ.X>h…q]0UA ]M6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNRleUX 6m`= evN{'uU)u62Y EI]}х \a'=Uq0"ͤ.X>h…q]0UA ]M"ͤ.X>h…q]0UA ]MD6Am'g)v{F.ˊqNRlePL!i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBSc*ǐYkP.+s;!KeYkP.+s;!Ke)YkP.+s;!Ki5YkP.+s;!KNTm`,NR(] 9TME!i;9K0v\Wk$wUPBSe5: EI]}х \a'=)XxCkfvrmgaB츮Id.e "ͤ.X>h…q]0UA ]M`CkfvrmgaB츮Id.e "ͤ.X>h…q]0UA ]MCkfvrmgaB츮Id.ѕ$i EI]}х \a'=FUCkfvrmgaB츮Id.뒦CkfvrmgaB츮Id.ѯ0@"ͤ.X>h…q]0UA ]M&d6Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNV,l"a EI]}х -M9ŲUjCkfvrmgaB츮`Gdq1likFYkP.+4Ù;\L[%ZZƮlY!i;9K0v\Wei2vJ1 T"ͤ.X>h…q]b*4Dʫ!i;9K0v\Wei2vJ`ŐYkP.+4Ù;\L[%ZZƈb6Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNV-UjCkfvrmgaB츮`Gdq1lik"*S!i;9K0v\Wei2vJ XX 6m`= ev[8s'kdKXXCkfvrmgaB츮`GdPR[6Dpzi;9K0v\Wei2v(s)f -9S sEI]}х -M9ACK0k "8=YkP.+4Ù;t9Vdpzi;9K0v\Wei2v(s)f a*dpzi;9K0v\Wei2v(s)f `TAm'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNe,S@6m`= ev[8s'n2`1fvrmgaB츮`GdPRFl sEI]}х -M9ACK0la sEI]}х -M9ACK0lmfvrmgaB츮`GdPR6R,NR(]lh̝ Yfipzi;9K0v\Wei2v(s)f 0Y,NR(]lh̝ YiY4q,NR(]lh̝ YiY0Y,NR(]lh̝ YiY8ʐ9"ͤ.X>h…q]̥۠6N,NR(]lh̝ YiYN9"ͤ.X>h…q]̥۠6 sEI]}х -M9ACK0p H ,NR(]lh̝ Y Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNe,z@6m`= ev[8s'n2`l^@6m`= ev[8s'n2`Dpzi;9K0v\Wei2v(s)f@6m`= ev[8s'n2`a,NR(]lh̝ Y@6m`= ev[8s'n2`B8=YkP.+4Ù;t9"Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNe,Ѡ,NR(]lh̝ YB@@HfvrmgaB츮`GdPR'Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNe,c@6m`= ev[8s'n2` sEI]}х -M9ACK0t9"ͤ.X>h…q]̥۠:y,NR(]lh̝ Y1,NR(]lh̝ Y\a,NR(]lh̝́1,hYkP.+4Ù;cV4q EI]}х -M9>5sdX 6m`= ev[8s's`}jl EI]}х -M9>5t6@6Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNq!i;9K0v\Wei2w6ƈ%U6Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNYkP.+4Ù;cD^!i;9K0v\Wei2w6ƈ+Hm`,NR(]lh̝́1&<"ͤ.X>h…q]s#`CkfvrmgaB츮`Gdl̜m`,NR(]lh̝́12UZCkfvrmgaB츮`GdlY"X 6m`= ev[8s's`}hGMŐYkP.+4Ù;cDNZX 6m`= ev[8s's`}hōX 6m`= ev[8s'uU)u\8"ͤ.X>h…q]UA ]FErCkfvrmgaB츮`Gd.V6E6Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNR5cdCkfvrmgaB츮`Gd.V6OHm`,NR(]lh̝TjٲD6Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNR5e!i;9K0v\Wei2wUPBQxCkfvrmgaB츮`Gd.W ,"ͤ.X>h…q]UA ]Fҳ!i;9K0v\Wei2wUPBQX 6m`= ev[8s'uU)u20"ͤ.X>h…q]UA ]FCkfvrmgaB츮`Gd.WFTED6Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNR5te@9YkP.+4Ù;!KҬ EI]}х -M9Y!i;9K0v\Wei2wUPBQ8ٰq EI]}х -M9YƜYkP.+4Ù;!K՜"6D6Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNR4EU|VCkfvrmgaB츮`Gd.DUY¤6Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNR4Dl`y EI]}х -M9(4"ͤ.X>h…q]UA ]F6Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNR4EmJ̆"ͤ.X>h…q]UA ]FTm`,NR(]lh̝ThJ̆"ͤ.X>h…q]UA ]F,i EI]}х -M91cdCkfvrmgaB츮`Gd.DZԆ"ͤ.X>h…q]UA ]F͔m`,NR(]lh̝ThUCkfvrmgaB츮`Gd.Dh! @"ͤ.X>h…q]UA ]FҬ0X 6m`= ev[8s'uU)u#J+!i;9K0v\Wei2wUPBQ4RX 6m`= ev[8s'uU)u"#:4"ͤ.X>h…q]ٮF5CFȆ"ͤ.X>h…q]ٮF5G)6Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNu4h{m`,NR(]lh̝4icVL"ͤ.X>h…q]ٮF5om`,NR(]lh̝4icKS CkfvrmgaB츮`GdYK+!i;9K0v\Wei2vkѥqYkP.+4Ù;5hƇ6D6Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNu4 EI]}х -M9]f,hy,"ͤ.X>h…q]ٮF5|m`,NR(]lh̝4ic@rCkfvrmgaB츮`GdYKȆ"ͤ.X>h…q]ٮF5Qd6Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNu4YkP.+4Ù;5hd6Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNu4YkP.+4Ù;5hƘ\CkfvrmgaB츮`GdYK)6Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNu4m`,NR(]lh̝4ich!i;9K0v\Wei2vkѥX 6m`= ev[8s'fXDYkP.+4Ù;5hk!i;9K0v\Wei2vkѥ"X 6m`= ev[8s'f#J6Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNu6F>+y EI]}х -M9]f-!i;9K0v\Wei2vkѲ2Vd6Am'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNu6FLu*CkfvrmgaB츮`GdYde&YkP.+4Ù;5hJP"ͤ.X>h…q]ٮFVcm`,NR(]G,j!i;9K0v\WmCkfvrmgaB츮9q0"ͤ.X>h…q]r` EI]}х h "X 6m`= evˉ@d6Am'g)v{F.ˊm`,NR(]G.&CkfvrmgaB츮9q0"ͤ.X>h…q]r`1 EI]}х h rX 6m`= evˉA6Am'g)v{F.ˊHm`,NR(]G.&YkP.+\L!i;9K0v\WmI EI]}х hRX 6m`= evˉ6Am'g)v{F.ˊm`,NR(]G.&YkP.+\L !i;9K0v\Wm8j!i;9K0v\Wm9m`,NR(]G̙ EI]}х hQ6Am'g)v{F.ˊȆ"ͤ.X>h…q]s_ 5YkP.+lNdm`,NR(]GAN0"ͤ.X>h…q]tX 6m`= evҜVCkfvrmgaB츮:`D6Am'g)v{F.ˊCkfvrmgaB츮:`@D6Am'g)v{F.ˊCkfvrmgaB츮:`@6Am'g)v{F.ˊI EI]}х hYkP.+1 EI]}х hYkP.+A EI]}х hYkP.+ EI]}х h遀YkP.+ EI]}х h遁YkP.+! EI]}х hCkfvrmgaB츮:`6Am'g)v{F.ˊ CkfvrmgaB츮:`6Am'g)v{F.ˊCkfvrmgaB츮:a$6Am'g)v{F.ˊ5FYkP.+m`,NR(]GPj!i;9K0v\WmF*ki EI]}х h5 EI]}х hDL"ͤ.X>h…q]u@m`,NR(]GT"ͤ.X>h…q]u@m`,NR(]GT "ͤ.X>h…q]u@m`,NR(]GTX 6m`= ev!i;9K0v\WmP bX 6m`= ev!i;9K0v\WmP X 6m`= ev !i;9K0v\WmP2X 6m`= ev!i;9K0v\WmPBX 6m`= ev$"ͤ.X>h…q]uAHm`,NR(]GT"ͤ.X>h…q]uAm`,NR(]GT "ͤ.X>h…q]uBHm`,NR(]̥۠>3S28=YkP.+ACKX|fd2CEI]}х t9-K@6m`= ev(s)fYb&*dpzi;9K0v\Wn2`Ő9"ͤ.X>h…q] YfvrmgaB츮e,ßPAm'g)v{F.ˊPRpzi;9K0v\Wn2` <Am'g)v{F.ˊPR69"ͤ.X>h…q] Y5Am'g)v{F.ˊPRUP@Am'g)v{F.ˊPRr@6m`= ev(s)f9q1dpzi;9K0v\Wn2`>4,NR(]̥۠8 ,NR(]̥۠8<Am'g)v{F.ˊPRu&9"ͤ.X>h…q] Y!B8=YkP.+[2X $I$ BA  `b0/9K!= ADQǰEI]}х fv d(EI]}х m'g)v{F.ˊqOEI]}х \a'=ŲU 6m`= evN{'n2B,NR(] 9́ D6m`= evN{'uU)"ͤ.X>h…q]i;9K0v\Wei2vJQfvrmgaB츮`GdPSEI]}х -M9?%m'g)v{F.ˊ 4pNSEI]}х -M9]"ͤ.X>h…q] `p  2AB@$  OA?''X<0dQC9V3ͤ.X>h…q]u)5HƸiƸ"[4J?8`hpZ?oU)Ta2G)d6yaBȣ5G809(Ӊ 1(@8H@ ?H0(8 8'$dY AP(Mm!OYRX<0v)Qkg*v\WF*kmڳEI+9K!= n28ƶretbی-)k=2UT,N)YY APq5;.+5alKYY# 6m`= evԤX 6VrCk{F.e*2qlNˊMm[6R{Ve)B Zi;|g)d6yaBR'T츮Tqe-gfYj,6VrCk{F.e*2qlNˊMm[6R{Ve)B@%YRX<0v)Qkg*v\WF*kmڳ,UVPJ@p Am'o, (]Tdʝъn0l-UU Qp UPEI+9K!= n28ƶretbی-)k=2UUnK` " UPEI+9K!= n28ƶretbی-)k=2UUnK` "X,N)YY APq5;.+5alKYYZt[9Z,N)YY APq5;.+5alKYYZt[94fvJRm`h…یFN1q] `Zj̲U[LTfvJRm`h…یFN1q] `Zj̲U[Aji;|g)d6yaBR'T츮Tqe-gfYjiqAji;|g)d6yaBR'T츮Tqe-gfYjkAj@2BI2AA$  OA?''X<0dQE{EI+9K!= n28ƶretbی-)k=3EI+9K!= n28ƶretbی-)k=2UU"ͤ򕜥х Jc[9S1S[m ՙb16m`= exB,N %app`P/ A @2$   pO2I''Rm`h…QUT: 3i@6]9X`# h. @ d4XBŀYAxpX Xr3NQIY@  "lQpaRH PrCkP (Mm  2@))d6yP H  `AY @0"TРRH PrCk $Q @ dS*Rm`B&F*khP)$L9K!a$ @ dS*Rm``Ib@  X<0d @ dS*Rm`h…F*khP)$L9K"@X  2@))dB0 @ dS*Rȅe 0((T  ` AA@@0,Pq 0`$H  `AYA@  !Aх RH PrD! PPP)$L>a%p`P/   'B$09K!= E-UPaH Ap5 fNVp @8 `P^>LӇ0=eirAA@@0,\C(TB$1S[BH  `AY @0 RH PrCke 05(THIb@  X<Q @ dS*Rm``I@  X<0@E@@0, (Y@  X<0dQ @ dS*Rȅ,`$H  `AY AA@  !AC  2@))dB(…PP)$L9K"C  RH PrD(8(`AA@@0,PqaB((T"a$ @ dS*:iĉB0/2BI@ @( H7 d H@ ?H@0I?HI ?rCk{F,\d>nڀ9Y AP(Mm!qsjK5uq`rCk{F,q0c, (Y9Y AP "=rCk{F,1S[Hq0c, (Yb9Y AP(Mm"=rCk{F,pZ9K!= E-UP8 k0HA#:/:/:#N./usr/lpp/vac.html.zh_CN/inst_root A lHm #::#:#N./usr/lpp/vac.html.zh_CN/inst_root/liblpp.am   e /acdhimnrst.=lopv"12468CILN_quxyz,0357ESbgkw|$-9:;AFHMOTUVZ[]f{}#&Y`!'?DRPQ^<>KWXj TJ";7 8 < #鱧>@o,HԶM9)iP' ,VRbY0iQ+dKK&= bB13JrGalm`+j6K0a!NuҜTs 9%M9JW 1 L@Bb%AXP( f)5M[P2+1INX, "_@E@HHfY_1I4mzڄZA a"1qu[Jpp1&Guuu8`'04u`YW P?9M9ybENmyN@zRk+GGk1I4mz%%\Ra< o*$PPx zYMdDk D ٌ$*356pm6neX356pm6bTf..*c 0M +|$2pOfa\h' +*¸j@"@q# 8x@@o,HԶM*U 1AX)VfT<@o,HԶM:NTfhikr-mz'Ym!_y#&:*Ia,QuJ L8 j 3$!$UFfcN}bXSl^-6MnEM\$3t[M[VJ2c&1W^~ ?8 x8S?bI h2NTfh164(m:ɵRd[KdN7E%#1PBi\FLtUDY#&:*4$p_JgI$ BIܪ&Ɯ"R6JZl܋il^If趛{d2Y 0S"J2c&1W^~alnoprs"/cdfghmu.=bw0Ikvy%,ACFXx12PST-357;DEMNOV#&48:BHRWYjqLUzGIvc.VBtMղT o8CIt ]Ӛ#+!H: /PcP`X,^a pppppqU:^ :mb8@qAǖ1 iAXȽcJ(8"(H?n AdaKe۞.&ÊqTBKy+CR.X7CU%{VdTHh?QKbԌKjHŀ R# [(vL%E48UA5#\kXJt/P]G7"b<(DDzp]  Cc$ h-"Ht3c8.pH@33ӛ"0]JܙBi gA[M#7sscM+d$ L 4{1l5|TdqD{.pRŴVT͎DxPp݈u\iwdsD7>̎;}2q5e\ଗCw=,h4#ୋiF<$y餺. KԘҔE q#Y]Gi.sR" A4niJK]tr$CM1F d(8݉[oc'[HȑAfG64ҰVKB q83-hn:F8y LR3)H?F5A5#\6FQM-h,8H8U&LP$lnti1IR# [(q4EPI5AP 1$ eq#c t ė-͍4`bFe)K)@PTǍ8 ْ͎$܃`KgMRRh5f=Rbd)H )M-SCnx"(I2LZ<9w0#IHBRE48狉,†p8IRR8GrC_#4:ؤfR qL7>͊ʝm#"b<)NlR3)H?YJ⠳ m(Օ=嶇[8Ghu9H̥ )HBpRb*A08p 5*At@dGsc8+%!ΚKbܷ;TY#eM%1wNn:Jt*crF ,Vuܔ|:vȝ*q5e%d@^ t歛f\l oM%1wNn;r޶77]3ԃzj¨9fYķ NhL{v"Y=4@9+l HM+^hO-"V&19(0`74 zD{-wn}n^$v 㹷-]t0 즄T${`_nIt ]ӛܶwȆHRi.sqۖKcx ${rmnoe ( e FX[ M n,]=4@9\5e!n3q Related Reading

Related Reading

All C for AIX information is available online and can be viewed with an HTML browser. You may also want refer to the following publications for additional information:

IBM Publications

  • AIX Version 4 System User's Guide: Operating System and Devices (SC23-2544)
    Describes the AIX Version 4 Operating System for novice system users. It describes how to run commands, handle processes, files and directories, printing, and working with the AIXwindows Desktop. It also introduces system commands for securing files, using storage media, and customizing environment files.
  • AIX Version 4 Getting Started (SC23-2527)
    Contains information for users who have little or no experience with the AIX operating system. It introduces basic system commands covering tasks such as starting and stopping the system, using a keyboard or mouse, logging in and out, identifying and using the various user interfaces, and running basic file commands.
  • AIX Version 4 Commands Reference (SBOF-1851)
    A collection of volumes that contain descriptions and examples of AIX commands and their available flags.
  • AIX Version 4 General Programming Concepts (SC23-2533 and SC23-2490)
    Discusses the operating system from a programming perspective.
  • AIX Version 4 Technical Reference, Volumes 1 and 2: Base Operating System and Extensions (SC23-2614 and SC23-2615)
    Provides reference information about system calls, subroutines, macros, and statements associated with the AIX base operating system runtime services and device services.

 

Non-IBM Publications

The C language is a well-established programming language. The following standards describe it:

  • ANSI/ISO-IEC 9899-1990[1992]
    Presents the ANSI/ISO standard for the C language. This document has officially replaced American National Standard for Information Systems-Programming Language C (X3.159-1989) as the ANSI C standard, and is technically equivalent to ANSI X3.159-1989.
  • ISO/IEC 9899:1990(E)
    Presents the International Standards Organization (ISO) standard for the C language.
  • Federal Information Processing Standards Publication C (FIPS PUB 160)
    Presents the Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) for the C language.
 

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Arithmetic Conversions

Most operators perform type conversions to bring the operands of an expression to a common type or to extend short values to the integer size used in machine operations. The conversions depend on the specific operator and the type of the operand or operands. However, many operators perform similar conversions on operands of integer and floating-point types. These standard conversions are known as the arithmetic conversions because they apply to the types of values ordinarily used in arithmetic.

Arithmetic conversions are used for matching operands of arithmetic operators to a common type. See Arithmetic Conversions Table to see how operand type mismatches are resolved.


Operands
Integral Promotions
Standard Type Conversions


Arithmetic Conversions Table
Arithmetic Conversions for extended Level C

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Integral Promotions

Certain fundamental types can be used wherever an integer can be used. The fundamental types that can be converted through integral promotion are:

  • char
  • short int
  • enumerators
  • objects of enumeration type
  • integer bit fields (both signed and unsigned)

If the value cannot be represented by an int, the value is converted to an unsigned int.

Note: Integral promotions are not performed on long or long long integers.


Standard Type Conversions
Arithmetic Conversions


Arithmetic Conversions Table
Arithmetic Conversions for extended Level C
char
int, long, short

/i kf$rc:7$:#r./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cucnvstd.htm$ Standard Type Conversions

Standard Type Conversions

Many C operators cause implicit type conversions, which change the type of a value. When you add values of operands having different data types, both values are first converted to the same type. For example, when a short int value and an int value are added together, the short int value is converted to the int type.

Implicit type conversions can occur when:

  • A value is prepared for an arithmetic or logical operation.
  • An assignment is made to an lvalue that has a different type than the assigned value.
  • A prototyped function is provided a value that has a different type than the parameter.
  • The value specified in the return statement of a function has a different type from the defined return type for the function.

You can perform explicit type conversions using the cast operator or the function style cast. For more information on explicit type conversions, see Type Casting.

 

Signed-Integer Conversions

The compiler converts a signed integer to a shorter integer by truncating the high-order bits and converting the variable to a longer signed integer by sign-extension.

Conversion of signed integers to floating-point values takes place without loss of information, except when an int or long int value is converted to a float, in which case some precision may be lost. When a signed integer is converted to an unsigned integer, the signed integer is converted to the size of the unsigned integer, and the result is interpreted as an unsigned value.

 

Unsigned-Integer Conversions

An unsigned integer is converted to a shorter unsigned or signed integer by truncating the high-order bits. An unsigned integer is converted to a longer unsigned or signed integer by zero-extending. Zero-extending pads the leftmost bits of the longer integer with binary zeros.

When an unsigned integer is converted to a signed integer of the same size, no change in the bit pattern occurs. However, the value changes if the sign bit is set.

 

Floating-Point Conversions

A float value converted to a double undergoes no change in value. A double converted to a float is represented exactly, if possible. If the compiler cannot exactly represent the double value as a float, the value loses precision. If the value is too large to fit into a float, the result is undefined.

When a floating-point value is converted to an integer value, the decimal fraction portion of the floating-point value is discarded in the conversion. If the result is too large for the given integer type, the result of the conversion is undefined.

 

Pointer Conversions

Pointer conversions are performed when pointers are used, including pointer assignment, initialization, and comparison.

A constant expression that evaluates to zero can be converted to a pointer. This pointer will be a null pointer (pointer with a zero value), and is guaranteed not to point to any object.

Any pointer to an object that is not a const or volatile object can be converted to a void*. You can also convert any pointer to a function to a void*, provided that a void* has sufficient bits to hold it.

You can convert an expression with type array of some type to a pointer to the initial element of the array, except when the expression is used as the operand of the & (address) operator or the sizeof operator.

You can convert an expression with a type of function returning T to a pointer to a function returning T, except when the expression is used as the operand of the & (address) operator, the () (function call) operator, or the sizeof operator.

You can convert an integer value to an address offset.

For more information on pointer conversions, see Pointer Arithmetic.

 

Function Argument Conversions

If no function prototype declaration is visible when a function is called, the compiler can perform default argument promotions, which consist of the following:

  • Integral promotions
  • Arguments with type float are converted to type double.

 

Other Conversions

By definition, the void type has no value. Therefore, it cannot be converted to any other type, and no other value can be converted to void by assignment. However, a value can be explicitly cast to void.

No conversions between structure or union types are allowed. You can convert from an enum to any integral type but not from an integral type to an enum.


Operands
lvalues
Integral Promotions
Arithmetic Conversions


Arithmetic Conversions Table
Arithmetic Conversions for extended Level C
Data Type Qualifiers
int, long, short
float, double
enum
void
return
sizeof

rong>f k  $ d:7$:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cucomcmt.htm$ Communicating Your Comments to IBM

Communicating Your Comments to IBM

IBM C for AIX
User's Guide and Reference
Version 5 Release 0

If there is something you like, or dislike, about this book, please let us know. You can use one of the methods listed below to send your comments to IBM. If you want a reply, include your name, address, and telephone number. If you are communicating electronically, include the title of the information item, product and version information, and panel(s) you are commenting on.

The comments you send should only pertain to the content of this information and its presentation. To request additional publications or to ask questions or make comments about the functions of IBM products or systems, you should talk to your IBM representative or to your IBM authorized retailer.

When you send comments to IBM, you grant IBM a nonexclusive right to use or distribute your comments in any way it feels appropriate without incurring any obligation to you.

If you are mailing comments from a country other than the United States, you can give it to the local IBM branch office or IBM representative for postage-paid mailing.

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Notices

 kVm ${ d:7$:#{ ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cucopts.htm$ Floating-Point Compiler Options

Floating-Point Compiler Options

Compiler options affect the accuracy, performance, and potentially the correctness of floating-point calculations. Although the default values for the options have been chosen to provide efficient and correct execution of most programs, some applications may require nondefault options to reproduce results reported by other hardware. You should read this and related pages before using the floating-point options.

By default, the C for AIX compiler produces object code that evaluates floating-point expressions in double precision, even if all operands in an expression are single precision. The results of expressions are then rounded to single precision if they are assigned to float variables.

Other C compilers might evaluate floating-point expressions in single precision where such an evaluation is permitted by the language definition. This implementation is preferred on machines where single-precision operations are faster than double-precision operations.

In general, floating-point results from programs compiled using C for AIX and executed on the RISC System/6000 system are more accurate than those from other implementations, because of the higher precision used for intermediate results and the use of maf operations.


-qfloat=nomaf
-qfloat=hssngl
-qfloat=nans
-qfloat=hsflt
-qfloat=rndsngl
-qflttrap


Sample TRAP Exception Handler


float Compiler Option
flttrap Compiler Option

Creating and Naming a C Source File

Creating and Naming a C Source File

A C program source is a collection of one or more text source files written in the C programming language, each of which can contain all or part of the functions that make up a C program. The individual source files are compiled into object modules which can then be linked together to create an executable program. You can use any text editor to create and edit a source file.

File-Naming Conventions

A file name can be up to 256 characters. (Longer names are truncated on the right.) The file name can contain lowercase and uppercase letters, numbers, underscores, periods, and other characters. The AIX Version 4 Operating System distinguishes between uppercase and lowercase letters.

By convention, C source files end with a .c filename extension, for example,

myprogram.c

The characters & | ; ( ) < > ? / * ' ~ have special meaning in the AIX system. To use them in a file name, you must place them inside quotation marks so that the shell does not interpret them. For example:

my"<"new">"program.c


C Program Development Cycle
Internal Structure of a C Program
External Structure of a C Program
C Language Levels


Writing Optimized Program Source Code


C Character Set
Reserved Keywords
ASCII Character Set

mage k $ d:7$:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cudecblk.htm$ Block Scope Data Declarations

Block Scope Data Declarations

In C, a block scope data declaration can only be put at the beginning of a block. It describes a variable and makes that variable accessible to the current block. All block scope declarations that do not have the extern storage class specifier are definitions and allocate storage for that object.

You can declare a data object with block scope with any one of the following storage class specifiers:

  • auto
  • extern
  • register
  • static
  • typedef

If you do not specify a storage class specifier in a block-scope data declaration, the default storage class specifier auto is used. If you specify a storage class specifier, you can omit the type specifier. If you omit the type specifier, all variables in that declaration receive type int.

 

Initialization

You cannot initialize a variable declared in a block scope data declaration that has the extern storage class specifier.

The types of variables you can initialize and the values that uninitialized variables receive vary for that storage class specifier. See Storage Class Specifiers for details on the different storage classes.

 

Storage

The duration and type of storage varies for each storage class specifier.

Declarations with the auto or register storage class specifier result in automatic storage duration. Declarations with the extern or static storage class specifier result in static storage duration.


Declarations Overview
File Scope Data Declarations
Declarators
Storage Class Specifiers
Initializers
Type Specifiers


auto
extern
register
static
int
typedef

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File Scope Data Declarations

A file scope data declaration appears outside any function definition. It describes a variable and makes that variable accessible to all functions that are in the same file and whose definitions appear after the declaration.

A file scope data definition is a data declaration at file scope that also causes storage to be allocated for that variable. All objects whose identifiers are declared at file scope have static storage duration.

Use a file scope data declaration to declare variables that you want to have external linkage.

The only storage class specifiers you can put in a file scope data declaration are static, extern, and typedef. If you specify static, all variables defined in it have internal linkage. If you do not specify static, all variables defined in it have external linkage. If you specify the storage class you can omit the type specifier. If you omit the type specifier, all variables defined in that declaration receive the type int.

Initialization

You can initialize any object with file scope. If you do not initialize a file scope variable, its initial value is zero of the appropriate type. If you do initialize it, the initializer must be described by a constant expression, or it must reduce to the address of a previously declared variable at file scope, possibly modified by a constant expression. Initialization of all variables at file scope takes place before the main function begins running.

Storage

All objects with file scope data declarations have static storage duration. Storage is allocated at runtime and freed when the program stops running.


Declarations Overview
Block Scope Data Declarations
Declarators
Storage Class Specifiers
Initializers
Type Specifiers


int
extern
static
typedef

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Declarations Overview

A declaration establishes the names and characteristics of data objects and functions used in a program. A definition allocates storage for data objects or specifies the body for a function. When you define a type, no storage is allocated.

Declarations determine the following properties of data objects and their identifiers:

  • Scope, which describes the visibility of an identifier in a block or source file.
  • Linkage, which describes the association between two identical identifiers.
  • Storage duration, which describes when the system allocates and frees storage for a data object.
  • Type, which describes the kind of data the object is to represent.

The declaration for a data object can include the following components:

  • Qualifier and declarator
  • Storage class
  • Initializer
  • Type specifier

The following table shows examples of declarations and definitions. The identifiers declared in the first column do not allocate storage; they refer to a corresponding definition. In the case of a function, the corresponding definition is the code or body of the function. The identifiers declared in the second column allocate storage; they are both declarations and definitions.

Declarations Declarations and Definitions
extern double pi; double pi = 3.14159265;
float square(float x); float square(float x) { return x*x; }
struct payroll; 
struct payroll {
                  char *name;
                  float salary;
               } employee;

Program Linkage between Identifiers
Scope of Identifier Visibility
Storage Duration
Block Scope Data Declarations
File Scope Data Declarations
Declarators
Storage Class Specifiers
Initializers
Type Specifiers

ze k{$H d:7$:#H ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cudecsto.htm$ Storage Class Specifiers

Storage Class Specifiers

The storage class specifier used within the declaration determines whether:

  • The object has internal, external, or no linkage.
  • The object is to be stored in memory or in a register, if available.
  • The object receives the default initial value 0 or an indeterminate default initial value.
  • The object can be referenced throughout a program or only within the function, block, or source file where the variable is defined.
  • The storage duration for the object is static (storage is maintained throughout program run time) or automatic (storage is maintained only during the execution of the block where the object is defined).

For a function, the storage class specifier determines the linkage of the function.

Declarations with the auto or register storage-class specifier result in automatic storage. Those with the extern or static storage-class specifier result in static storage.

Most local declarations that do not include the extern storage-class specifier allocate storage; however, function declarations and type declarations do not allocate storage.

The only storage-class specifiers allowed in a global or file scope declaration are static and extern.

Storage class specifier keywords are:

  • auto
  • extern
  • register
  • static
  • typedef

auto
extern
register
static
typedef

 kHN$ d:7$:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cudectyp.htm$ Type Specifiers

Type Specifiers

Type specifiers indicate the type of object or function being created.

The basic range of types are:

You can use the basic types listed above to derive the following additional object types:

The integral types are char and int of all sizes. Floating-point numbers can have types float, double, or long double. Integral and floating-point types are collectively called arithmetic types.

You can give names to both basic and derived types with the typedef specifier.


Declarations Overview
Block Scope Data Declarations
File Scope Data Declarations
Declarators
Storage Class Specifiers
Initializers
Type Specifiers
Lexical Elements of C - Character Constants
Lexical Elements of C - Integer Constants
Lexical Elements of C - Floating-Point Constants


typedef

g="0" kꮄ$d:7$:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cudevel.htm$ C Program Development Cycle

C Program Development Cycle

A C program typically passes through four steps of development.

The solid lines show inputs into each step of the development cycle. Compile and Linkage Editor operations are performed by the C for AIX product, which also lets you specify what optional outputs are produced. Optional outputs are shown in the diagram by the broken lines. Descriptions of the steps follow below:

Design and Code Involves designing a program to meet a specified requirement, and creating the programming language text files that will comprise the program source.
Compile After checking for syntactical correctness, converts the programming language source files into machine readable instructions, where C variables are associated with memory addresses, and C statements are turned into a series of machine language instructions. The compiler can produces various forms of output, depending on the compiler options selected.
Linkage Editor Links compiler output with external modules requested by the compiled program. C programs can use routines from C libraries or any object or archive file from the IBM XL family of languages. C programs can also use modules produced by the current or previous compilations. As well as linking the external modules, the linkage editor resolves addresses within the object module.
Run and Test This stage can be both the final step in program development, or it can be an intermediate point in the program design and implementation process. A program's design commonly is further refined as a result of information gathered during testing.

Creating and Naming a C Source File
Internal Structure of a C Program
External Structure of a C Program


Writing Optimized Source Code


List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Message Severity Levels and Compiler Response
Compiler Return Codes
Diagnostic Message Format

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lvalues

An lvalue is an expression that represents an object. A modifiable lvalue is an expression representing an object that can be changed. It is typically the left operand in an assignment expression. For example, arrays and const objects are not modifiable lvalues, but static int objects are.

All assignment operators evaluate their right operand and assign that value to the left operand. The left operand must evaluate to a reference to an object.

The address operator (&) requires an lvalue as an operand, while the increment (++) and the decrement (--) operators require a modifiable lvalue as an operand.

Expression Lvalue of Expression
x = 42; x
*ptr = newvalue; *ptr
a++ a

Overview
Operator Precedence and Associativity
Operands
Types of Expressions


const
int
static

ned k~$Y e:7$:#Y ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cuexpops.htm$ Operands

Operands

Most expressions can contain several different, but related, types of operands. The following type classes described related types of operands.

integral Character objects and constants, objects having an enumeration type, and objects having the types short, int, long, long long, unsigned short, unsigned int, unsigned long, or unsigned long long.
arithmetic Integral objects listed above, and objects having the types float, double, long double, and long float.
scalar Arithmetic objects listed above, and pointers to any object type.
aggregate Arrays, structures, and unions.

Many operators cause conversions from one data type to another.


Integral Promotions
Standard Type Conversions
Arithmetic Conversions


Arithmetic Conversions Table
Arithmetic Conversions for extended Level C
int, long, short
float, double

tr>  k$e:7$:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cuexpovr.htm$ Expressions and Operators Overview

Expressions and Operators

Expressions are sequences of operators, operands, and punctuators that specify a computation. The evaluation of an expressions is based on the operators that the expression contains, and the context in which the operators are used.


Operator Precedence and Associativity
Operands
lvalues
Types of Expressions
Constant Expressions
Function Calls


Operator Precedence and Associativity Table
Primary Operators
Unary Operators
Binary Operators
Assignment Operators
Comma Operator

 kX$e:7$:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cuexppre.htm$ Operator Precedence and Associativity

Operator Precedence and Associativity

Two characteristics of operators determine how they will group with operands:

precedence Precedence is the priority for grouping different types of operators with their operands.
associativity Associativity is the left-to-right or right-to-left order for grouping operands to operators that have the same precedence.

For example, in the following statements, the value of 5 is assigned to both a and b because of the right-to-left associativity of the = operator. The value of c is assigned to b first, and then the value of b is assigned to a.

b = 9;
c = 5;
a = b = c;

Because the order of the expression evaluation is not specified, you can explicitly force the grouping of operands with operators by using parentheses. In the expression:

a + b * c / d

the * and / operations are performed before the + because of precedence. Further, b is multiplied by c before it is divided by d because of associativity.

 

Special Cases

Order of evaluation for function call arguments or for the operands of binary operators is not specified. Avoid writing ambiguous expressions, such as:

z = (x * ++y) / func1(y);
func2(++i, x[i]);

In the example above, the order of evaluation of ++y and func1(y) is not defined. In fact, they might not even be evaluated in the same order at different optimization levels. Do not write code that depends on a particular order of evaluation of operators that have the same precedence.

The order of grouping operands with operators in an expression containing more than one instance of an operator with both associative and commutative properties is not specified. The operators that have the same associative and commutative properties are *, +, &, |, and ^.

The order of evaluation for the operands of the logical AND (&&) and OR (||) operators is always left-to-right. If the operand on the left side of a && operator evaluates to a 0 (zero), the operand on the right side is not evaluated. If the opernad on the left side of a || operator evaluates to a non-zero value, the operator on the right side is not evaluated.


Examples of Operator Precedence and Associativity


Operator Precedence and Associativity Table

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C for AIX Features

The C for AIX product is an IBM licensed program that operates in the AIX Version 4 Operating System environment. Features of the C for AIX product include:

  • Ability to compile in either 64- or 32-bit modes. Programs compiled in 64-bit mode can only be run on 64-bit CPUs using AIX 4.3 or higher. Programs compiled in 32-bit mode can be run on either 64- or 32-bit CPUs using AIX 4.2 or higher.
  • Programming support for parallel processing architectures:
    • SMP automatic and explicit parallelization support
    • OpenMP Application Program Interface support
  • Conformance to the following industry standards for compiling C language source code:
    • The Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) PUB 160 C language
    • The American National Standard for Information Systems (ANSI) and International Standards Organization (ISO) standard ANSI/ISO-IEC 9899-1990[1992] for the C programming language
    • The International Standards Organization (ISO) standard ISO/IEC 9899:1990(E) for the C programming language
    • Conformance to IBM Systems Application Architecture (SAA) Common Programming Interface C language definition, described by the document Systems Application Architecture Common Programming Interface C Reference - Level 2. SAA Level 2 is an IBM definition of the C language that allows programmers to develop applications that can be easily transported across different SAA environments. It specifies several features of the C language that the ANSI C standard designates as implementation-defined.
  • Compiler options to provide support for different levels and features of the C language
  • Compiler options to enable various levels of optimization for generated object code
  • Unicode character support lets you use characters not in the basic character set to describe identifiers, character constants, and string literals.
  • Memory debug routines
  • xldb and IBM Distributed Debugger (idebug) graphical debugger tools
  • HTML-based product help and reference information
 

T l^$e:7$:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cufltar.htm$    einot <>aclmprs"./=dfghu-0b,;qwxy#&13FTkv%()*8:ACEIz9OPRW\245MN{}HIAd :l >!*p1Ӵď Y*AtCxٍ(  ~f( @]A$wAӫr@ֽdVYZؽl,D 0ABIx.  RJR$ Rd;LXJ@Ij1Ϧpm:Pcq{VXp {VbG+/THJ<v@oR_.Y*Gz􏤩Rb[*At@'lïv\w\{a9MYaߕ{ ;L~F4%׽g:FAYaߕ{eDž֙ٗ]dǮƓ$ l/e>>[k jIs鲃:F ɿOLve8HeldՖ3~1鋾d:e6-FAt@[[َ}6C:yXjW),;{17W(ZpmV_v<>ltiv.c[$cV_'; 5#aZ|~\FAt@f97e~U\+Lt3wX>~璊l~Zap[&&bt :MjKi@uYES;G'bkw]}盫s鲃:{7E0mf7 w'bkwŃ牙ŵ{$#pi+_1{ݐmV_as#pfCbBdzc-NYI; eQfo<=zNzཞ[=deǺ3xA͌׽g:B;ᄚʲ[E EL&#[J17W/{ᄚ~\{|L?s钃hLMn1{֓X>xk$$7%,Am:~>`4ʏ ZO|$7w1T1?1e#pd65e2zc-E7v zG, ̸3ljdaZn/H+JG, Gm)HH:\mg޲l~>mV_v={mJ0֓f9'֙, HebrL~>mV_v>fɒzN3!1n{d#6Ʒ Atn0nl˫02n/x`G A^ Ag#8,a(?Gj@ [¯J!F愂8 0lnhHG%ᜎ @Jy0r8`(?Gj@ [¯J!F愂8 0lnhHG%tJt%pQKQ>$ޤHFʐK*N4Šn/H-uI KqseH:L!5Yj pX!;MjW䢥dX:c d6}2{1Ϧ}J(b!F ~ 74'Ɏ, adilnprs"/cfgh.=bmu-0qvwxy#,ERT%12:ABFGIOPSk39NVz()458UXDLWZ_HAv)9d*ZNcE) %pS=)99r9&(m@@, ,  BNszP;sȵ lj  lk^(@dK[8 vX`d$E SXS t.0%Tu䨉24\*m(d[*D tԐp[w=Nr*NokI^n)C58@aE;s{ZNopÍB[)9d= A`_S/&UYbA %U*{ |Ǣy "_lGޓC .tFN)$ zœRz}.=9)lú9 X'"=ʗLsZ#ph0 NA}s0}k;#NS[+Ć9/TsX}h9d-9е-MAs -kԵȖ/Q qB'7. 9kػ,@8@ 2Q8J@0%ĥN)(֓邮cK\ܑzড়䶕lq@:  {ZNopINoZ.0FN)( @Rp Iĥs֐2]0Ur)sk/Sҭ(^-˘ {ZNopINoZ.0FN)(r8JNo%(֓邮cK\ܑzড়䶕lq@:)e;='7$E'7-x[eFJ#p HBŠq)@SJ@Ri9kH.*9 yKiVcc,0Uae:!kI 9pI^bQ)%RpX@Rp Iĥs֐2]0Ur)sk/Sҭ(^HbC){ZNopIB[)9:֓9d= %tuByrWWeΈ)$$O.PœRNj};.p)Q|V *pB`' :NdFN)$ lx)$> .tFN)2 lx)'4e8c0Rc.w›E ) * r l\DN %HoeΈ)$$O@SOOS爱4e;-Q\L}; {-WUSLvR𢠡A2is7 qI %pS0S$22p"tW19e ;.xHa,DNNhoNNY!$[Sjj[J8wy)VtCi:sHae;^뛒.V ċ˞CEltOe!KWn`)\DnOœRNhOSGu_ %W* ҭ(_O*N˓\P-_eΈ)$$O@SOOSD !͘Dz%wD.8Y k{N.`s-[)ݖy)l e7 qI %pS`e::9 b|$FNi "_lU*Nw9A m.tFN) `x)' rtW+Ć l%tr.3|((Wu%0rRWe!K)ؙEobCuo Ć1lqZPc{#bgce˵hœRA$@SO7e9x܅5q]80[&L"xPc!Z :uG-N[f7 qI=N) xLLsYpD @^J$9v(tKiV!)Du%` ˄ b.n2AIm*u%` ˄ b)] -qfloat=hsflt

-qfloat=hsflt

The -qfloat=hsflt option improves the performance of floating-point computations by suppressing all rounding operations and by performing conversions from floating point to integer with inline code. This option is intended for knowledgeable programmers in specific applications where the computational characteristics of a program are known. To safely use the hsflt option, a program must never attempt to assign floating-point results to single-precision variables unless the results are known to be within the allowable range of single-precision values. In addition, if any floating-point numbers are converted to integers, the floating-point numbers must be within the representable range of integers. If the hsflt option is used in cases where a program does not have these properties, the program may produce incorrect results without warning. When the computational characteristics of a program are not known, use hssngl not hsflt.

In suppressing rounding operations, the hsflt option operates in the same way as the hssngl option. However, the hsflt option also suppresses rounding operations when double-precision values are assigned to single-precision variables. Single-precision overflow or underflow is not detected in such assignments, and the assigned value is not properly rounded according to the current rounding mode.

For floating-point-to-integer conversions, the hsflt option allows the compiler to use inline code sequences instead of subroutine calls. The inline code sequences do not check the floating-point value, and produce incorrect results in cases where the floating-point value does not fall within the range of an integer.

Use the -qfloat=hsflt option with the -O option, but not with the -qfloat=rndsngl or -qfloat=hssngl options.


Overview
-qfloat=nomaf
-qfloat=hssngl
-qfloat=nans
-qfloat=rndsngl
-qflttrap


Sample TRAP Exception Handler


-O
-qfloat
-qflttrap

H:G2 kr$ e:7$:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cufphssn.htm$ -qfloat=hssngl

-qfloat=hssngl

The -qfloat=hssngl option improves the performance of single-precision (float) floating-point calculations by suppressing certain rounding operations. The suppressed rounding operations are required by the C language, but are not necessary for correct program execution. Rounding operations are still inserted when double-precision results are stored into single-precision memory locations.

The hssngl option retains the results of floating-point expressions in double precision when the original program would have rounded those results to single precision. The retained double-precision results are then used in later expressions instead of the rounded results. The program results may be more accurate because of the increased precision, and program execution may be faster because rounding operations have been omitted.

Rounding operations are still necessary in cases where a floating-point result is stored into a single-precision variable. The result must be rounded to detect a single-precision floating-point overflow or underflow. In some cases, program optimization can remove store operations from a program. The hssngl option allows the rounding operation that accompanied the original store to be removed also. When the hssngl option can retain such a result in double precision, an exception can be avoided.

The hssngl option is safe for all types of programs because it can only increase the precision of floating-point computations in a program.

Use the -qfloat=hssngl option with the -O option, but not with the -qfloat=rndsngl option.


Overview
-qfloat=nomaf
-qfloat=nans
-qfloat=hsflt
-qfloat=rndsngl
-qflttrap


Sample TRAP Exception Handler


-O
-qfloat
-qflttrap

float -qfloat=nans

-qfloat=nans

The -qfloat=nans option causes the compiler to generate object code that detects the conversion of a single-precision signalling NaN (NaNS) to double precision. By default, the compiler generates object code that detects the use of a NaNS in all other situations required by the IEEE standard.

Very few programs actually require checks for NaNS. A NaNS cannot be produced by any floating-point operation, and must instead be explicitly created. A program only needs to be compiled with the -qfloat=nans option if it explicitly creates a signalling NaN.


Overview
-qfloat=nomaf
-qfloat=hssngl
-qfloat=hsflt
-qfloat=rndsngl
-qflttrap


Sample TRAP Exception Handler


-qfloat
-qflttrap

stron kҗ!$Lf:7$:#L./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cufpnmaf.htm$ -qfloat=nomaf

-qfloat=nomaf

The nomaf option is provided for cases where it is necessary to exactly duplicate the double results of an implementation that does not have multiply-add operations. The nomaf option prevents the compiler from generating any multiply-add operations. Not using multiply-add operations decreases accuracy and performance but strictly conforms to the IEEE standard for double-precision arithmetic.

To duplicate the single-precision results from other implementations, you may also need to use the -qfloat=rndsngl option.


Overview
-qfloat=hssngl
-qfloat=nans
-qfloat=hsflt
-qfloat=rndsngl
-qflttrap


Sample TRAP Exception Handler


-qfloat
-qflttrap

tron ks"$ f:7$:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cufprnds.htm$ -qfloat=rndsngl

-qfloat=rndsngl

The -qfloat=rndsngl option is provided for cases where it is necessary to exactly duplicate the results of an implementation that uses single-precision floating-point arithmetic for float expressions. The rndsngl option causes the compiler to round the results of floating-point operations on float operands to single precision. The effect of rounding the intermediate results to single precision is the same as if single-precision operations had been used for evaluating float expressions. Runtime performance can decrease significantly because of the increased rounding overhead.

Some programs might check portions of their results by comparing those results with values computed on other systems. Again, the rndsngl option may be required to duplicate the previous results and to have such programs report correct execution. Programs checking double-precision results may also require the nomaf option.


Overview
-qfloat=nomaf
-qfloat=hssngl
-qfloat=nans
-qfloat=hsflt
-qflttrap


Sample TRAP Exception Handler


-qfloat
-qflttrap

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Introducing C for AIX Concepts

The panel to the left shows a list of general C for AIX conceptual information areas. Look here to find the background information you need to use C for AIX.

Any entry ending with ... expands to a list of related sub-topics. Entries not ending with ... link directly to information content on the chosen topic, which will appear in this panel.

 

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Lexical Elements of C - Identifiers

Identifiers consist of an arbitrary number of letters or digits. They provide names for the following language elements:

  • Functions
  • Data objects
  • Labels
  • Tags
  • Parameters
  • Macros
  • Typedefs
  • Structure and union members.

There is no limit for the number of characters in an identifier. However, the linkage editor does limit the number of significant characters in external identifiers and truncates them after 4095 characters.

The compiler distinguishes between uppercase and lowercase letters in identifiers. For example, PROFIT and profit represent different data objects.

Note: The underscore character ( _ ) is considered a letter. In ansi mode, identifiers can begin with _ but not with $. In extended mode, identifiers can begin with _ or $, but you should avoid using these characters at the beginning of identifiers because they are reserved for internal system names. . The -qdollar compiler option lets you use the $ character in identifiers.

Identifiers used by C library functions that begin with two underscores or an underscore followed by a capital letter, are reserved in all contexts.

Although the names of system calls and library functions are not reserved words if you do not include the appropriate headers, avoid using them as identifiers. Duplication of a predefined name can lead to confusion for the maintainers of your code and can cause errors at link time or run time. If you include a library in a program, be aware of the function names in that library to avoid name duplications.

You should always include the appropriate headers when using standard library functions.


Lexical Elements of C - Tokens
Lexical Elements of C - Comments
Lexical Elements of C - Constants
Scope of Identifier Visibility

 k*$wf:7$:#w./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/culextok.htm$ Tokens

Lexical Elements of C - Tokens

Source code is treated during preprocessing and compilation as a sequence of tokens. There are five different types of tokens:

  • Identifiers
  • Keywords
  • Literals
  • Operators
  • Other separators

Adjacent identifiers, keywords and literals must be separated with white space. Other tokens should be separated by white space to make the source code more readable. White space includes blanks, horizontal and vertical tabs, new lines, form feeds and comments.


Lexical Elements of C - Comments
Lexical Elements of C - Identifiers
Lexical Elements of C - Constants

o l+$f:7$:#} ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/culnglev.htm$    et "<>ailnors./=cdfghmpCbuvw#%05ALy128ISTx,-FNRXk()39:DOPYq&4;BEKMHYsؔ% 6S(]L6 iP|=LJ9Ҙ% qD( @$ UlP,,sؔ% }b#"D(%Y4Ҋt !A*ɧg@[HP$$!LJ?rbQ+׸Ÿ4BBŚ i4B'59Un%bQ ,v:Q%VBXŎhbQ%벱M{ &ş2*N0S5{e1(X&% !ġ(YG6~;EEdbٵ˩T/=0KL-u0t t&~ͬ>\e̘{RJ&$+:RkЪ|ٵ%PX%RPOٴeTɓF* % BXȪ VM=索PRi%0GLJ?f{ }jŸ4‚OXkٻ^ BEڱn*!@0ɓF bQLJ?rbQ+ S;`c cŏe1(]qVi )#{6N%ۣ(`SdTT'n7X ` mMC,{)Gǹ1(]ɉG[HP(!L\Q%Jǝ01bQ+ SGO%<7m` -8ЪzQ|D 4C;6bq{mчIGicLJ?=ɉGLJ?ebUBA br enUr bDzŸ4B8rbqsaY Y1*J?;`c(u;`c7Ъ~tB=sF1{&R[pXX^B#2Dz{ܘɋ{`B Ÿ4‚*7@!csF2mk w(%Zr dՏ;`c0B*}0ҏ6q 2bq}HʸF+_f J? &Iu"M %ġcD>% =2"y/+:;`c c큂ZeoT(:3/>Q2M:c`2"r[g.,7ό.2fԷ i>Suٵw(5큏;`c2bq}Kqi@lD˨ tm<ۣ %ҭ2=BP 6q 2bq}KkLx<{RQ%(:%T|)VҊu0k<.g.-N`uB%T/k0KL9J&% BXȪ VM=索PJi%0 SܘŸ4BBŸ9Ȓ0øSJH8bUBVm8lu1b$ģm͕B y1!'ka`3sKX1([seEDΟD8> Overview of the C Language

Overview of the C Language

C is a programming language designed for a wide variety of programming tasks. It is used for system-level code, text processing, graphics, and in many other application areas.

The C language described in these pages is consistent with the Systems Application Architecture Common Programming Interface (also known as the SAA C Level 2 interface), and with the International Standard C (ANSI/ISO-IEC 9899-1990[1992]). This standard has officially replaced American National Standard for Information Systems--Programming Language C (X3.159-1989) (X3.159-1989) and is technically equivalent to the ANSI** C standard.

C supports several data types, including characters, integers, floating-point numbers, and pointers -- each in a variety of forms. In addition, C also supports arrays, structures (records), unions, and enumerations.

The C language contains a concise set of statements, with functionality added through its library. This division enables C to be both flexible and efficient. An additional benefit is that the language is highly consistent across different systems.

The C library contains functions for input and output, mathematics, exception handling, string and character manipulation, dynamic memory management, as well as date and time manipulation. Use of this library helps to maintain program portability, because the underlying implementation details for the various operations need not concern the programmer.

All of the standard C library functions and many others are part of the AIX Base Operating System (BOS) Runtime Services. The AIX Version 4 Technical Reference, Volumes 1 and 2: Base Operating System and Extensions describes all of the C library functions supported by the C for AIX compiler. Refer to "Subroutines Overview" in AIX Version 4 System User's Guide: Operating System and Devices for general information about library functions.

 

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Types of Memory

There are two types of memory:

  1. Regular memory

    Most programs use regular memory. This is the type provided by the default runtime heap.

  2. Shared memory

    Heaps of shared memory can be shared between processes or applications. If you want other processes to use the heaps you have created, you must pass them the heap handle and give them access to the heap. Use _ucreate to create the heap.


Memory Management Functions
Managing Memory with Multiple Memory Heaps
Debugging Memory Heaps


Example of Creating and Using a User Heap
Example of Creating and Using a Shared-Memory User Heap

 l 2$g:7$:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cumsginf.htm$    eiorst <>achlnp"./dfgmu=b,-0wy#1Fqv%56CILST()2348:MOPkx&79;ABEHRWXYjz|DC49P9c:HE>[|f(pq<qe+fu2:Ncpj `X,O0cJzNcx k8C'\5.\HaDR>0(D5M\M¤}`ahH"PNBUʚh66Vw( &JR@)سb͗VRiv0@:Noh. &S҇6Ipa.Ifh9m@ڠ턜2 d;#|/×EbQEKwW™-tSz}6:]YTf(G6>j:u|x^C:bʌ"W8ڧZ,9EN]Mo?|/9d= q.\E>[4ۧfZP6mӉI̧u=함;cuwV[U}G]Y5ٶZE]Wq.9ic*u6<]1DǗ}d|-xӳlliή.3 ];egS[Rz</@Is!wW<"T§Y.E]]%Ŝ͗B<_G.v릖S'f胛Y.຿ME=zNcK@a'7 F 8"]]$EU (QV(0 <DviވӺ UõGa `@(W EVb;g7W-٧u?];U.Ù*u^D2Ga `@(W EVb;g7W-٧u?];U.Ù*u^D2J}Nd $ .szAG]l_Srڥr1DywG..'.9 /#6Ĥ ]6mӉOӅ9d= qYN%!ƩĴ tS497tf8(6Ĥ]llQ1A/z3nJA/R6mӉINg9 ='1̆āS|q8szAGlˉ\ÅduO\ur-xY$ˉ9#/r@\*v/N4VRiޝc{뢟-V8^;g6\O];'7j#.V;Ykh*\O^;w@Is OR'7NolG]l_r~ ɧ8sᰬ~PgG.lw(pYulu8sdGG]ji6Rs)(\|Ӿ[9/~QvN]7(<^t Il?f!{4Vn}dz~;>[¢ˎo ^˹q?YtS٧t IlwnC..;g6\O^;7[|f(າI@{Iv\AEhҁ;O wW΅>9E>[&1 =B. p@]?B+4NH@RRPs]QF k.4Yv"B5De%'7p@ak. Vi@d@JNo+ ( e֊( jKA@JNo+ ( e-bJ Example of Name Space Separation

Example of Name Space Separation

Structure tags, structure members, variable names, and statement labels are in four different name spaces; no conflict occurs among the four items named student in the following example: 

int get_item()
{
   struct student        /*  structure tag        */
   {
      char student[20];  /*  structure member     */
      int section;
      int id;
   } student;            /*  structure variable   */
 
   goto student;
   student: ;            /*  null statement label */
   return (0);
}

Each occurrence of student is interpreted by its context in the program. For example, when student appears after the keyword struct, it is a structure tag. When student appears after either of the member selection operators . or ->, the name refers to the structure member. When student appears after the goto statement, control is passed to the null statement label. In other contexts, the identifier student refers to the structure variable.


Name Spaces
Scope of Identifier Visibility

 kJ4$p g:7$:#p ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cunamspa.htm$ Name Spaces

Name Spaces

The compiler sets up name spaces to distinguish among identifiers referring to different kinds of entities. Identical identifiers in different name spaces do not interfere with each other, even if they are in the same scope.

You must assign unique names within each name space to avoid conflict. The same identifier can be used to declare different objects as long as each identifier is unique within its name space. The syntactic context of an identifier within a program lets the compiler resolve its name space without ambiguity.

Identifiers in the same name space can be redefined within enclosed program blocks, as described in Scope of Identifier Visibility.

Within each of the following four name spaces, the identifiers must be unique.

  • Tags of these types must be unique within a single scope:
    • Enumerations
    • Structures and unions
  • Members of structures and unions must be unique within a single structure or union type.
  • Statement labels have function scope and must be unique within a function.
  • All other ordinary identifiers must be unique within a single scope:
    • Function names
    • Variable names
    • Names of function parameters
    • Enumeration constants
    • typedef names.

Scope of Identifier Visibility


Example of Name Space Separation

 l&5$g:7$:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cunotice.htm$     einot <>acdprs"/bghlmu,.=fvy0ABCIMSw&159;FNOPTUkx%'()-2347:DELRXYq#*+68GHWjV!PfoyM$SI%fi$͐Fiƭ(JdJ[Zl#M6V(%ZP(pQmr!@ B0BP)Q/ZP+XQ:`0;d^:&e 0'N HZQ-(Va]#qq:v0 Crcda 0FIi!jg#y Q,Z-alDaZHܽZ0 ZQuJ?ծmcyN zhD(4'\NiBl(J; %/8 &; 2f_cmL~k/x%&#<3ި2XzP7!D5Yk8N\wqS @ 4 (}M<*|ޥe[Mf\yo2`'QVk6]ȚQ., O?V_'! numeJPl~ 8 B0|w% ߦOc yRn Q/ZP) rq cp> N t&1% Î9DiBPƅSeiG9aYn@zҏ&Λb@0H0 f_ 6|Aip!X+ Xp5DiB(hX?6V% zL?lsm~8齏(Ǝgݛ$J n@~w÷:ocn.M|JgtmY|?saO5(':f:"K֔% zA|~6V7 s62{ːM>4:RQfo~Cd,`[ʓjGLR=™LմBhme6Aj%J=j,‹3xٵxqLjUx~Amep8 p8_ 4 ,͏`:\-DaZTsgp!|`酝7+x?yzͬ 5.D&; n˼(6< xV2+Mf_wTZnDOP J!1Sv;4W0o |IK6x~^'ZgJ^(S zz҄Ff*$1iBP6Hلf?sp|1ǷEw 3yE^ͺ]۵M>0ٽ8褡Å|u6~ɏV6ee7J*M6[c?‹3c`T.qc d . 8WxSd_0ٵn6ͬR|Y~,mu|&݈!vJ$.Lbhlw(?L|f4|&/ˍF֏K֔% zy`f~Cmef6ͬYiDO(wهeGyz/ 4]Dʲ eGyz;&>yt:x?iqɌf")fܔMTLEz' ڲ}ϦO}B[x#MYb~AYb403᧜Qᣦϑ\(fB+AN \*$/(J4ٸߦT{q33LV7 s6 (rLQe#.en@meN߫tm{ f˻GLw PմV_*?.@wꀏO8=?2}X܁J̦dyS7.e˅xܽcw[녊J{!M A0 f_ 6|A\#8) +B(0{-`${Lcr3k/5"O(w% {Ꮕ3g[r[Yqi/{;l2NngdJld 1m4O'Cǰ؊J=S\2]cn_ 4߃~1l:c Jv[,F'[Lc1]2QϨIraK֔% zvT^Q/ZP(1aH1s eLSghť BYfG to' iF<+u%ُ|&}*cDiBC a ف Sf`(VgtavɦuYc&e 0ҏkE7BD5ZQrvT^Q:q6n<bun8rҏQ;ҏkħxj'\Z쨼uJ?ծX~v_ aZٌTNiGҏViGs a!aPZQrvT^Q:q6n<rҏQ;ҏkE7BA-(V`*/rҏkE7BBDJ'\NiG`ZN`Q:,eEZQra @R-(ZQ-(Va]#q,& J'\Z쨼uJ?ծmcy H Q:v J?[q6nuJ?D(aF҅ٽ-D-(JB"xIuKd˸f=d(n{ iqy CLY$$=?4ul_Q/ZP) i9=+0Ml:b+M3J7.6{# [ʟc@-Ps 4ɄE(Jd% l 04ױΫ,avɦmYc #ӴR J?ծt0a0!jg24a =sNfiq,?8j7GpbNiGs a# Zmcf^D떔-(Q: B B̄@dKpѳ[~ĖyfBG XE&asl(xi !j%JIXJIqJf1s k[6$g:7$:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cuolangs.htm $ Using C for AIX with Other Programming Languages

Using C for AIX with Other Programming Languages

With the C for AIX compiler, you can call functions written in other XL languages from your C program. Similarly, the other XL language programs can call functions written in C for AIX. This and related pages give you information about how to use interlanguage calls in your C program. You should already be familiar with the syntax of the languages you are using.


Interlanguage Calling Conventions
Corresponding Data Types
Using the Subroutine Linkage Conventions in Interlanguage Calls
Sample Program: C Calling Fortran

6ͬ kꖂ7$ g:7$:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cuoptlev.htm$ Program Optimization with the C for AIX Compiler

Program Optimization with the C for AIX Compiler

During optimization, the compiler changes the unoptimized code sequences, derived from the source code, into equivalent optimized code sequences. The resulting code runs faster and usually takes less space. However, during optimization, compilation usually takes more time and space.

Because optimization transforms the code, the direct correspondence between source and object code is often lost. Therefore, debugging information is not provided for programs compiled using the optimization option. Optimized code is also more sensitive to subtle coding errors. For these reasons, do not use the optimization options while you are developing your programs. Use the -O optimization options only to compile the final versions of your programs.

 

Optimization Levels in C

The default is not to optimize your program. To optimize your program, specify one of the following optimizing compiler options:

  • -O
  • -O2
  • -O3
  • -O4
  • -qOPTimize
  • -qOPTimize=2
  • -qOPTimize=3
  • -qOPTimize=4

When you specify optimization, the compiler performs a complete control and data-flow analysis for each function. The compiler also uses global register allocation for the whole function, thereby allowing many variables to be kept in registers rather than in memory. The compiler performs optimizations such as described in Optimization Techniques Used by the C for AIX Compiler.


Optimization Techniques Used by the C for AIX Compiler
Special Handling of Math and String Library Functions


Writing Optimized Code
Inlined Components
Minimizing the Size of Object Files


-O, -qoptimize
Built-in Functions for PowerPC Processors

 k 8$ h:7$:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cuoptmsf.htm$ Special Handling of Math and String Library Functions

Special Handling of Math and String Library Functions

The C for AIX compiler can improve optimization by generating substitute code for calls to some math and string functions available within the standard C runtime libraries. The functions handled this way are defined as macros in /usr/include/math.h or /usr/include/string.h.

The special handling of these functions occurs by default, when either math.h or string.h is included in the source program. To explicitly generate substitute code for a particular function, use the function with two underscores (__strcpy, for example).

When including math.h and string.h, avoid redeclaring the functions.

If your application requires a function call to one or all of the math or string functions, prevent special handling of all math or string functions within a source file by using either the -U __MATH__ or the -U __STR__ option on the command line. For example: 

ixlc -c -U__MATH__ file.c

Runtime performance of an application is affected if special handling is disabled.


Program Optimization with the C for AIX Compiler
Optimization Techniques Used by the C for AIX Compiler


-U

rc= kv9$h:7$:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cuopttec.htm$ Optimization Techniques Used by the C for AIX Compiler

Optimization Techniques Used by the C for AIX Compiler

Technique

Description of Technique
Value Numbering Involves constant propagation, expression elimination, and folding of several instructions into a single instruction.
Branch Optimizations Rearranges the program code to minimize branching logic and to combine physically separate blocks of code.
Common Subexpression Elimination In common expressions, the same value is recalculated in a subsequent expression. The duplicate expression can be eliminated by using the previous value. This step is done even for intermediate expressions within expressions. For example, if your program contains the following statements: 
a = c + d;
    .
    .
    .
f = c + d + e;

the common expression c + d is saved from its first evaluation and is used in the subsequent statement to determine the value of f.

Code Motion If variables used in a computation within a loop are not altered within the loop, the calculation can be performed outside of the loop and the results used within the loop.
Invariant IF Code Floating (Unswitching) Removes invariant branching code from loops to make more opportunity for other optimizations.

For example, in the following code segment, the condition test and the conditional assignment: 

if (a[i]>100.0) b[i]=a[i]-3.7;
    x+=a[j]+b[i];

do not change during execution of the inner loop. 

for (i=0;i<1000;i++) {
   for (j=0;j<1000;j++) {
      if (a[i]>100.0) b[i]=a[i]-3.7;
      x+=a[j]+b[i];
   }
}

The compiler translates the code into a machine-language loop that executes as: 

for (i=0;i<1000;i++) {
   if (a[i]<100.00) {
      for (j=0;j<1000;j++) {
         b[i]=a[i]-3.7;
         x+=a[j]+b[i];
      }
   }
   else {
      for (j=0;j<1000;j++) {
         x+=a[j]+b[i];
      }
   }
}
Reassociation Rearranges the sequence of calculations in an array-subscript expression, producing more candidates for common-expression elimination.
Strength Reduction Replaces less efficient instructions with more efficient ones. For example, in array subscripting, an add instruction replaces a multiply instruction.
Constant Propagation Constants used in an expression are combined, and new ones are generated. Some implicit conversions between integer and floating-point types are done.
Store Motion Moves store instructions out of loops.
Dead Store Elimination Eliminates stores when the value stored is never referred to again. For example, if two stores to the same location have no intervening load, the first store is unnecessary and is removed.
Dead Code Elimination Eliminates code that cannot be reached or code whose results are not subsequently used.
Inlining
( -Q option )		 Replaces function calls with actual program code.
Instruction Scheduling Reorders instructions to minimize execution time.
Interprocedural Analysis
( -qipa option )		 Uncovers relationships across function calls, and eliminates loads, stores, and computations that cannot be eliminated with more straightforward optimizations.
Global Register Allocation Allocates variables and expressions to available hardware registers using a graph coloring algorithm.

The -O and -Q compiler options also determine the types of inlining to be used.


Program Optimization with the C for AIX Compiler
Special Handling of Math and String Library Functions


Writing Optimized Code


-O
-Q
-qipa

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Example of a Simple C Program

The source for a simple C program is shown below:

A Simple C Program 
/**
 ** This is an example of a simple C program
 **/
#include <stdio.h>    /* standard I/O library header that
                         contains macros and function
                         declarations, ie printf used below  */
 
#include <math.h>     /* standard math library header that
                         contains macros and function
                         declarations, ie cos used below    */
 
#define NUM 46.0      /* Preprocessor directive             */
 
double x = 45.0;      /* External variable definitions      */
double y = NUM;
 
int main(void)        /* Function definition
                         for main function                  */
{
   double z;          /* Local variable definitions         */
   double w;
 
   z = cos(x);        /* cos is declared in math.h as
                               double cos(double arg)       */
   w = cos(y);
   printf ("cosine of x is %f\n", z); /* Print cosine of x  */
   printf ("cosine of y is %f\n", w); /* Print cosine of y  */
 
   return 0;
}

The program above defines main and declares a reference to the function cos. The program defines the global variables x and y, initializes them, and declares two local variables z and w.


Internal Structure of a C Program
Scope of Identifier Visibility
Statement Blocks


Example of a C Program Comprised of Two Source Files

L k<$ h:7%:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cupgmex2.htm$ Example of a C Program Comprised of Two Source Files

Example of a C Program Comprised of Two Source Files

The following example shows a C program source comprised of two source files. The main and max functions are in separate files. The program logic starts with the main function.

Example Program with Two Source Files 
/***********************************************************
*  Source file 1 - main function                           *
************************************************************/
 
#define ONE     1
#define TWO     2
#define THREE   3
 
extern int max(int, int);          /* Function declaration */
 
int main(int argc, char * argv[])  /* Function definition  */
{
   int u, w, x, y, z;
 
   u = 5;
   z = 2;
   w = max(u, ONE);
   x = max(w,TWO);
   y = max(x,THREE);
   z = max(y,z);
return z;
}
 
/***********************************************************
*  Source file 2 - max function                            *
************************************************************/
int max (int a,int b)             /* Function  definition  */
{
   if ( a > b )
       return (a);
   else
       return (b);
}

The first source file declares the function max, but does not define it. This is an external declaration, a declaration of a function defined in source file 2. Four statements in main are function calls of max.

The lines beginning with a number sign (#) are preprocessor directives that direct the preprocessor to replace the identifiers ONE, TWO, and THREE with the digits 1, 2, and 3. The directives in the first source file do not apply to the second source file.

The second source file contains the function definition for max, which is called four times in main. After you compile the source files, you can link and run them as a single program.


Internal Structure of a C Program
Scope of Identifier Visibility
Statement Blocks


Example of a Simple C Program

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"581v,mp#XM@psbk4eS JrNo9(P[ By R )BG”UpXqB、ҁR$8R$qJذUäB u4{G7 UI6Kk WIL!(I9u"C1"HJ ][\:AN.5J 9j]M&^RMlJRNoF]H EH(c]j`ذUä T-A茺!.$5n :@KМ:IP"YI9ecaj\>ƅT9(w P(:rNoe$AI9ENcJrNcR$81[ k [$cj&CbJ,V$81 0R %a(HSA("s (-'2.ŭ'0 -r l`A$'h:7%:#* ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cuprdcon.htm $    eiort /<>acdhlnps".fg#=bmv0Akuw*,1CDEFMPTxy%&9;INSz238Oq45:WYLCtSbl1LSZH&ڷbNVտ%{B(>ֺRb1&)6Jׂ `d!2yb AFKdF: c)$ns.HFh! 11Ѭ%ۀ60 J-R@S d]"ۀAԐMoS_M9[V [(;@"L_X-N^ m a%ue=L_X}Ę>K&)$+ ecλ{+jާuبSo쬕 bAld-s}{+jާ8#d?[=v*m[[#jdxf.z?c=sT1d! ƭ/">d|1a cy s<PNu=5|LX&x;2OL21<=Y+1>&)$:[Hz!弔ԓJ#o%!IY9Dpx, }|zg84(A~$SOg]8^^ s?]/ar1DphP$ GH:@1C Pɋ ǩz#B HP4=E>Yc}ԠIb m쬕 ~?[xZտZ<.TxecgSbz#o%!є;SY+ %ְEO'g;R]Ao%&++%{B|21~od}l.ǫ~[1y&+\Qf_ᖹeOgODw-<2rJLVVJg{;O'E˽G/x$1PIbT%2p@#u˝1D 7\тO$@#pf@dĘpf@$(D 8J&bwM7 kD 7l-%q&/ے@ eۢdao8*W.b(1Юܒ c.(>H;&kƞOМVվ(:8 @ 1@A2A0\7RQ0㞅(NKrhm3Z `@ 4Kt@0@Iv a>!q>C/n$P:coem[ɆZ1^йI%(X)DNr]D i 4Kt@0@Iv a>Ic(ۢdQ cO$VJN$BrH0$d1n$<30\4L_Udh\JL_+$9H>C/`A2CDpvL21<Y+(:8 @Î|QEۀDpvL21<Y+(:8 @Î|Q (>Hz!Gd-s^йAԔ ĘWnIs| 2ۢd#ao _Udh\JL_+$9H>Bۢdecy&/*W.b(<bĘqjumn A(S(<bĘ$AB])1LTA(<bWnIs9bN:lNv衒O,@Îq= Q3)pM7xI1Pq6LT)1@ֵ khB$ h:7%:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cuprddef.htm $ Preprocessor Macros

Preprocessor Macros

You can use the #define preprocessor directive to define a macro that assigns a value to an identfier. The preprocessor replaces subsequent occurences of that identifier with its assigned value until the identifier is undefined with the #undef preprocessor directive, or until the end of the program source is reached, whichever comes first.

There are two basic types of macro definitions that you can use to assign a value to an identifer:

Object-like Macros Replaces a single identifier with a specified token, or constant value.
Function-like Macros Associates a user-defined function and argument list to an identifier. When the preprocessor encounters that identifier in the program source, the defined function is inserted in place of the identifier along with any corresponding arguments.

Preprocessor Directives
Preprocessing Operations
Conditional Compilation Directives


#define Preprocessor Directive
#undef Preprocessor Directive
Predefined Preprocessor Macros
Preprocessor Macro Operators

Ę k4(C$ i:7%:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cuprdops.htm$ Preprocessing Operations

Preprocessing Operations

Preprocessing carries out the following operations on your program source files:

  1. New-line characters are introduced as needed to replace system-dependent end-of-line characters, and other system-dependent character-set translations are performed as needed. Trigraph sequences are replaced by equivalent single characters.
  2. Each \ (backslash) followed by a new-line character is deleted, and the next source line is appended to the line that contained the backslash.
  3. The source text is decomposed into preprocessing tokens tokens and sequences of white space. A single white space replaces each comment. A source file cannot end with a partial token or comment.
  4. Preprocessing directives are run, and macros are expanded.
  5. Escape sequences in character constants and string literals are replaced by their equivalent values.
  6. Adjacent string literals are concatenated.

The rest of the compilation process operates on the preprocessor output, which is syntactically and semantically analyzed and translated, and then linked as necessary with other programs and libraries.


Preprocessor Directives
Preprocessor Macros
Conditional Compilation Directives


C for AIX Character Set

 k`D$ i:7%:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cuprdovr.htm$ Preprocessor Directives

Preprocessor Directives

Preprocessing is a step that takes place before compilation that lets you:

  • Replace tokens in the current file with specified replacement tokens.
  • Imbed files within the current file
  • Conditionally compile sections of the current file
  • Generate diagnostic messages
  • Change the line number of the next line of source and change the file name of the current file.

A token is a series of characters delimited by white space. The only white space allowed on a preprocessor directive is the space, horizontal tab, vertical tab, form feed, and comments. The new-line character can also separate preprocessor tokens.

The preprocessed source program file must be a valid C program.

Preprocessor directives begin with the # token followed by a preprocessor keyword. The # token must appear as the first character that is not white space on a line. The # is not part of the directive name and can be separated from the name with white spaces.

A preprocessor directive ends at the new-line character unless the last character of the line is the \ (backslash) character. If the \ character appears as the last character in the preprocessor line, the preprocessor interprets the \ and the new-line character as a continuation marker. The preprocessor deletes the \ (and the following new-line character) and splices the physical source lines into continuous logical lines.

Except for some #pragma directives, preprocessor directives can appear anywhere in a program.


Preprocessing Operations
Preprocessor Macros
Conditional Compilation Directives


Preprocessor Directives
#pragma Preprocessor Directives

R$ lJE$i:7%:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/curiscfp.htm$   aeinortcfghmu.0=bwy,-FSvx#()136ACEIPRTq%&48;H259:DOk+7BLMUVWXNzI rI,ӳ o ݄ '.f (c$\@(u@vYZ '@D$I% tӮ-q*0Q"IBRHyd‰O* $$@p\BaC2t FCq[[tqjESw./pi,t# fAٺsm|d6+_fnŚ}IMܺ8A:цccyAћ }VfAٺ }>ޕk EzY溭kfAٺM-qِdn2åPvCgǣ+ l>4r lu\7DZ lpZ0{Gz wc2t{7DB@G p A]Kfٽ:@_T(:ֈG.;2 u twfX|GGx$H,>( qh.2PuIӭi l)9A_![E2:3a_ohfAٺ hҦ {dc7GEѥM푏uٖL>9ih[2 u[Z4^ 6 pcɓ-T7MhBG.ِdnٺo|fWjdg޺kfAٺZ G_f8 z|gA>jэ- }`v fAٺٺo|kc>@Eِdn1n#mQynZѭAǢi3M62+{# A]D [@"D-#8lAˣ }IMܺ8e\glso:@F 7];4r lIL,,,$|p<4FabD(cw[o,:U 2]} uZ"l2[7^7M{Ac~H.1]Ԯ+( O̵"f#̴BeWGtq`F>{vFx+}>;](Gv",o]ԢF>u@>:[tqh9)GFٺofXt;~6nwn)\\>{# CE{,XzWu+?GOz2-T3/#]ZjJnŐ9ћ7MޟvgzWB;b8Oz|x !θ vc#f86>-ܺ8Ԕˣ͛@Ek~ٺoE{,XзRw3f:Jad@($!kcSG $̅s&HK NdWu(JDDĖeGIBIZ:듨Q;l${ҸBFǮo -#t5tΙ-G.T:ah\$@fAٺMF>~Aϊ;hfAٺbco +TYJ,Vd@a`= kxX 6h}8,!s[C6n rK zEqf eo!7M=qql+ sWoG淞:L ٺA@Z8=#E%;yм4mu]xh P,H Rounding Mode Restrictions

Rounding Mode Restrictions

The floating-point rounding mode can only be changed at the beginning and end of a function. It cannot be changed across a function call, and if it is changed within a function, it must be restored before returning to the calling routine.


Floating-Point Compiler Options
Compile-Time Floating-Point Arithmetic

 kFG$i:7%:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cuscovis.htm$ Scope of Identifier Visibility

Scope of Identifier Visibility

An identifier becomes visible with its declaration. The region where an identifier is visible is referred to as the identifier's scope.

The scope of an identifier is determined by where the identifier is declared. The four kinds of scope and their descriptions are:

Block Scope The identifier's declaration is located inside a statement block.

A block starts with an opening brace ({) and ends with a closing brace (}). An identifier with block scope is visible between the point where it is declared and the closing brace that ends the block.

Block scope is sometimes referred to as local scope.
Function Scope The only identifier with function scope is a label name.

A label is implicitly declared by its appearance in the program source. A goto statement transfers control to the label specified in the goto statement. The label is visible to any goto statement that appears in the same function as the label.
File Scope The identifer's declaration appears outside any block.

It is visible from the point where it is declared to the end of the source file. If the source files are included by #include preprocessor directives, those files are considered to be part of the source, and the identifier will be visible to all included files that appear after the declaration of the identifier.

The identifier can be declared again as a block scope variable. The new declaration replaces the file-scope declaration until the end of the block.
Function Prototype Scope The identifier's declaration appears within the list of parameters in a function prototype.

It is visible from the point where it is declared to the closing parenthesis of the prototype declaration.

Program Linkage Between Identifiers
Storage Duration
Name Spaces
Identifiers


#include Preprocessor Directive
goto

n < kBH$7i:7%:#7./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cuselect.htm$ Compiler Modes

Compiler Modes

There are several forms of the C for AIX compiler command to support various version levels of the C language. Normally, you should use the xlc command for compiling your source files. You can, however, use other forms of the command if your particular environment and file systems require it.

The basic compiler invocations are:

xlc
 Invokes the compiler for C source files with a default language level of ansi, and specifies compiler option -qansialias to allow type-based aliasing. Use this invocation for new C programs. 
cc
Invokes the compiler for C source files with a default language level of extended and compler options -qnoro and -qnoroconst (to provide compatibility with the RT compiler and placement of string literals or constant values in read/write storage). Use this invocation for legacy C code that does not require compliance with ANSI C. 
c89
 Invokes the compiler for C source files, with a default language level of ansi, and specifies compiler options -qansialias (to allow type based aliasing) and -qnolonglong (disabling use of long long), and sets -D_ANSI_C_SOURCE (for ANSI-conformant headers). Use this invocation for strict conformance to the ANSI standard.

 

C for AIX provides variations on the four basic compiler invocations. These variations are described below:

xlc128
cc128		 All 128-suffixed invocation commands are functionally similar to their corresponding base compiler invocations. They specify the -qldbl128 option, which increases the length of long double types in your program from 64 to 128 bits.
xlc_r
cc_r		 All _r-suffixed invocations are functionally similar to their corresponding base compiler invocations, but set the macro name -D_THREAD_SAFE and invoke the added compiler options:
  • -L/usr/lib/threads
  • -Lusr/lib/dce
  • -lc_r
  • -lpthreads
  • -qthreaded

Use the _r-suffixed invocations when compiling with the -qsmp compiler option or if you want to create either Posix or AIX DCE threaded applications.

xlc_r4
cc_r4		 Use _r4-suffixed invocations to provide compatibility between DCE applications written for AIX Version 3.2.5 and AIX Version 4. They link your application to the correct AIX Version 4 DCE libraries, providing compatibility between the latest version of the pthreads library and the earlier versions supported on AIX Version 3.2.5.

On AIX 4.3, use _r7-suffixed invocations to compile and link applications conforming to DRAFT 7 of the Posix threads standard. Otherwise, the compiler will by default compile and link applications conforming to the current Posix threads standards.
xlc_r7
cc_r7		 On AIX 4.3, use _r7-suffixed invocations to compile and link applications conforming to DRAFT 7 of the Posix threads standard. Otherwise, the compiler will by default compile and link applications conforming to the current Posix threads standards.

C Language Levels


Invoking the Compiler


-qansialias
-D
-L
-l
-qnolonglong
-qnoro
-qnoroconst

n k’I$i:7%:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cuspecop.htm$ Compiler Options

Compiler Options

Compiler options perform a wide variety of functions, such as setting compiler characteristics, describing the object code and compiler output to be produced, and performing some preprocessor functions. You can specify compiler options in one or more of three ways:

  • on the command line
  • in your source program
  • in a configuration file

When specifying compiler options in more than one of the above locations, it is possible for option conflicts and incompatibilities to occur. C for AIX resolves these conflicts and incompatibilities in a consistent fashion, as described in Resolving Conflicting Compiler Options.


Invoking the C for AIX Compiler
Specifying Compiler Options on the Command Line
Specifying Compiler Options in Your Source Program
Specifying Compiler Options in a Configuration File


Resolving Conflicting Compiler Options
List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults

ref= k@J$ i:7%:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/custgdur.htm$ Storage Duration

Storage Duration

Storage duration determines how long storage for an object exists. An object has either static storage duration or automatic storage duration depending on its declaration. Descriptions of each follow:

Static storage Is allocated at initialization and remains available until the program ends. Objects have static storage duration if they:
  • Have file scope
  • Have external or internal linkage OR
  • Contain the static storage class specifier.
Automatic storage Is allocated and removed according to the scope of the identifier. Objects have automatic storage duration if they are:
  • Parameters in a function definition.
  • Declared at block scope and do not have any storage class specifier, or,
  • Declared at block scope and have the register or auto storage class specifier.

For example, storage for an object declared at block scope is allocated when the identifier is declared and removed when the closing brace (}) is reached.

Note: Objects can also have heap storage duration. Heap objects are created at runtime and storage is allocated for them by calling a function such as malloc().


Scope of Identifier Visibility
Program Linkage Between Identifiers
Name Spaces


auto Storage Class Specifier
register Storage Class Specifier
static Storage Class Specifier

>  kXwK$ i:7%:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/custruct.htm$ External Structure of a C Program

External Structure of a C Program

A source program consists of at least one source file. You can compile a source program that consists of several source files by specifying all of the source files as input to the compiler invocation command. Typically, compiler invocation produces calls to both the compiler and the linkage editor, and creates a single executable file as output. For example, to produce an executable file named testprog from three files, testdata.c, testres.c, and testparm.c, you would enter: 

xlc testdata.c testres.c testparm.c -o testprog

You can also compile each source file separately by specifying the -c compiler option to invoke only the compiler to produce object files (.o files). You can then link-edit the resulting object files to create an executable file by invoking the compiler on these .o files without using the -c option.

For example, to produce object files for each of three programs, testdata.c, testres.c, and testparm.c, you would enter: 

xlc testdata.c testres.c testparm.c -c

Then, to produce an executable file named testprog from these three object files, testdata.o, testres.o, and testparm.o, enter: 

xlc testdata.o testres.o testparm.o -o testprog

To combine several source files at compilation, you can list the files on the command line when you use an invocation command to produce a compiled file for each file you specify. Or you can use the #include preprocessor directive to include the files in the primary source file so that one compiled file is produced. This directive causes the text of a named secondary source file to be imbedded at the point where the #include is encountered in the primary file.


Internal Structure of a C Program


Specifying Path Names for Include Files


List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults

nally k|L$Li:7%:#L./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cuvisex1.htm$ Example of File and Function Prototype Visibility Scopes

Example of File and Function Prototype Visibility Scopes

In the following example, the variable x, which is declared on line 1, is different from the x declared on line 2. The variable declared on line 2 has function prototype scope and is visible only up to the closing parenthesis of the prototype declaration. Visibility of the variable x declared on line 2 resumes after the end of the prototype declaration. 

1   int x = 4;             /* variable x defined with file scope */
2   long myfunc(int x, long y); /* variable x has function       */
3                               /* prototype scope               */
4   int main(void)
5   {
6      /* . . . */
7   }

Scope of Identifier Visibility


Example of File and Block Visibility Scopes

to  kM$` i:7%:#` ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cuvisex2.htm$ Example of File and Block Visibility Scopes

Example of File and Block Visibility Scopes

Functions with static storage class are visible only in the source file they are defined in. All other functions can be globally visible.

The following program illustrates blocks, nesting, and scope. The example shows two kinds of scope: file and block. The main function prints the values 1, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2, 1 on separate lines. Each instance of i represents a different variable.

 

          #include <stdio.h>
          int i = 1;                         /* i defined at file scope */
 
          int main(int argc, char * argv[])
 +------  {
 |
 |           printf("%d\n", i);              /* Prints 1 */
 |
 | +----     {
 | |            int i = 2, j = 3;            /* i and j defined at
 | |                                            block scope */
 | |            printf("%d\n%d\n", i, j);    /* Prints 2, 3 */
 | |
 | | +--        {
 | | |             int i = 0;                /* i is redefined in a nested block     */
 | | |                                       /* previous definitions of i are hidden */
 | | |             printf("%d\n%d\n", i, j); /* Prints 0, 3 */
 | | +--        }
 | |
 | |            printf("%d\n", i);           /* Prints 2 */
 | |
 | +----     }
 |
 |           printf("%d\n", i);              /* Prints 1 */
 |
 |           return 0;
 |
 +------  }


Scope of Identifier Visibility


Example of File and Function Prototype Visibility Scopes


Scope of Identifier Visibility


Example of File and Function Prototype Visibility Scopes

 k(N$g i:7%:#g ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/concepts/cuxlcovr.htm$ Using the C for AIX Compiler

Using the C for AIX Compiler

You can use the C for AIX product as a C compiler for files with a .c (small c) suffix. The compiler processes your text-based C program source files to create an executable object module.

The cc command is a tradional UNIX operating system command for invoking the C compiler. Other compiler modes and their invocation commands described in this and related pages are specific to the C for AIX compiler.

Note: Use of the xlc Command in this Information
Throughout these information panels, the xlc command is used to describe the actions of the compiler.

In most cases, you should use the xlc command to compile your C source files.

The xlc_r and xlc128 commands specify additional libraries, macros, or options that are not automatically included or set by the xlc command. Besides these differences, these commands may be considered functionally equivalent, so that any mention of one in this book implies the other. This is also true for the cc, cc_r and cc128 commands.


Compiler Modes
Specifying Compiler Options
Types of Input Files
Types of Output Files
Compiler Messages and Listings


Invoking the Linkage Editor
Invoking the C for AIX Compiler
Specifying Compiler Options on the Command Line
Specifying Compiler Options in Your Source Program
Specifying Compiler Options in a Configuration File


List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults

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Alignment Rules for Nested Aggregates

Aggregates with different alignments can be nested. Each aggregate is laid out using the alignment rules applicable to it. The start position of the nested aggregate is determined by the alignment rules of the aggregate in which it is nested.

 

Example
The following example uses these symbols to show padding and boundaries: 

     p = padding
     | = halfword boundary
     : = byte boundary

For: 

     #pragma options align=mac68k
     struct A {
       char a;
     #pragma options align=power
       struct B {
         int b;
         char c;
       } B1;    // <-- B1 laid out using RISC System/6000 alignment rules
     #pragma options align=reset    // <-- has no effect on A or B, but
                                    //     on subsequent structs
       char d;
     };
 
     sizeof(A) == 12

The layout of A is: 

     |a:p|b:b|b:b|c:p|p:p|d:p|

align Compiler Option
__align Specifier
RISC System/6000 Alignment Rules
Macintosh and Twobyte Alignment Rules
Packed Alignment Rules

Z kR$t:7':#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rualnpak.htmifm$ Packed Alignment Rules

Packed Alignment Rules

All structures are byte-aligned regardless of their members. All members are also byte-aligned. (Bit fields are byte-aligned, but bit-field members are not.)

 

Example
The following example uses these symbols to show padding and boundaries: 

     p = padding
     | = halfword boundary
     : = byte boundary

For: 

     #pragma options align=packed
     struct {
       char a;
       double b;
     } B;
     #pragma options align=reset
 
     sizeof(B) == 9

The layout of B is: 

     |a:b|b:b|b:b|b:

 

Packed Bit Fields
The following rules apply when laying out packed bit fields.

  • An individual bit field can be at most 32 bits long.
  • Bit fields are packed together into the current word. If a bit field extends beyond the current word, it starts at the next byte boundary.
  • A bit field of width zero causes the next class member to start at the next byte boundary. If the zero-width bit field is already at a byte boundary, the next structure member starts at this boundary.
  • A nonbit field following a bit field is aligned on the next byte boundary.

 

Example

#pragma options align=packed
struct {
int a : 8;
int b : 10;
int c : 12;
int d : 4;
int e : 3;
int : 0;
int f : 1;
char g;
} A;
#pragma options align=reset

sizeof(A) == 7

The layout of A is:

Member Name Displacement
bytes (bits)
a 0
b 1
c 2 (2)
d 4
e 4 (4)
f 5
g 6

align Compiler Option
RISC System/6000 Alignment Rules
Macintosh and Twobyte Alignment Rules
Alignment Rules for Nested Aggregates

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Statement Blocks

A block statement, or compound statement, lets you group any number of data definitions, declarations, and statements into one statement. All definitions, declarations, and statements enclosed within a single set of braces are treated as a single statement. You can use a block wherever a single statement is allowed.

Definitions and declarations must come before the statements in a statement block.

Redefining a data object inside a nested block hides the outer object while the inner block runs. However, defining several variables that have the same identifier can make a program difficult to understand and maintain. You should avoid redefining identifiers within nested blocks. If a data object is usable within a block and its identifier is not redefined, all nested blocks can use that data object.

Initialization of an auto or register variable occurs each time the block is run from the beginning. If you transfer control from one block to the middle of another block, initializations are not always performed. You cannot initialize an extern variable within a block.


Block Scope Data Declarations
File Scope Data Declarations
Storage Class Specifiers
Type Specifiers


Example of Initialization within Statement Blocks

$ k$t:7':#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruclcau.htmifm$ auto

auto

The auto storage class specifier lets you define a variable with automatic storage; its use and storage is restricted to the current block. The storage class keyword auto is optional in a data declaration. It is not permitted in a parameter declaration. A variable having the auto storage class specifier must be declared within a block. It cannot be used for file scope declarations.

Because automatic variables require storage only while they are actually being used, defining variables with the auto storage class can decrease the amount of memory required to run a program. However, having many large automatic objects may cause you to run out of stack space.

Declaring variables with the auto storage class can also make code easier to maintain, because a change to an auto variable in one function never affects another function (unless it is passed as an argument).

The following example lines declare variables having the auto storage class specifier: 

auto int counter;
auto char letter = 'k';

 

Initialization
You can initialize any auto variable except parameters. If you do not initialize an automatic object, its value is indeterminate. If you provide an initial value, the expression representing the initial value can be any valid C expression. For structure and union members, the initial value must be a valid constant expression if an initializer list is used. The object is then set to that initial value each time the program block that contains the object's definition is entered.

Note: If you use the goto statement to jump into the middle of a block, automatic variables within that block are not initialized.

 

Storage
Objects with the auto storage class specifier have automatic storage duration. Each time a block is entered, storage for auto objects defined in that block is made available. When the block is exited, the objects are no longer available for use.

If an auto object is defined within a function that is recursively invoked, memory is allocated for the object at each invocation of the block.


Block Scope Data Declaration


Examples Using auto Storage Classes
goto

Bs(F k$t:7':#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruclcex.htmifm$ extern

extern

The extern storage class specifier lets you declare objects and functions that several source files can use. All object declarations that occur outside a function and that do not contain a storage class specifier declare identifiers with external linkage. All function definitions that do not specify a storage class define functions with external linkage.

An extern variable, function definition, or declaration also makes the described variable or function usable by the succeeding part of the current source file. This declaration does not replace the definition. The declaration is used to describe the variable that is externally defined.

If a declaration for an identifier already exists at file scope, any extern declaration of the same identifier found within a block refers to that same object. If no other declaration for the identifier exists at file scope, the identifier has external linkage.

An extern declaration can appear outside a function or at the beginning of a block. If the declaration describes a function or appears outside a function and describes an object with external linkage, the keyword extern is optional.

If you do not specify a storage class specifier, the function has external linkage.

 

Initialization
You can initialize any object with the extern storage class specifier at file scope. You can initialize an extern object with an initializer that must either:

  • Appear as part of the definition and the initial value must be described by a constant expression. OR
  • Reduce to the address of a previously declared object with static storage duration. This object may be modified by adding or subtracting an integral constant expression.

If you do not explicitly initialize an extern variable, its initial value is zero of the appropriate type. Initialization of an extern object is completed by the time the program starts running.

 

Storage
Storage is allocated at compile time for extern variables that are initialized. Uninitialized variables are mapped at compile time and initialized to 0 (zero) at load time. This storage is freed when the program finishes running.


Constant Expressions
File Scope Data Declarations


Examples Using extern Storage Classes


Function Declarations

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static

The static storage class specifier lets you define objects with static storage duration and internal linkage, or to define functions with internal linkage.

An object having the static storage class specifier can be defined within a block or at file scope. If the definition occurs within a block, the object has no linkage. If the definition occurs at file scope, the object has internal linkage.

 

Initialization
You can initialize any static object with a constant expression or an expression that reduces to the address of a previously declared extern or static object, possibly modified by a constant expression. If you do not provide an initial value, the object receives the value of zero of the appropriate type.

 

Storage
Storage is allocated at compile time for static variables that are initialized. Uninitialized static variables are mapped at compile time and initialized to 0 (zero) at load time. This storage is freed when the program finishes running. Beyond this, the language does not define the order of initialization of objects from different files.

 

Block Scope Usage
Use static variables to declare objects that retain their value from one execution of a block to the next execution of that block. The static storage class specifier keeps the variable from being reinitialized each time the block where the variable is defined runs. For example: 

static float rate = 10.5;

Initialization of a static array is performed only once at compile time. The following examples show the initialization of an array of characters and an array of integers: 

static char message[] = "startup completed";
static int integers[] = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 };

 

File Scope Usage
The static storage class specifier causes the variable to be visible only in the file where it is declared. Files, therefore, cannot access file scope static variables declared in other files.

 

Restrictions
You cannot declare a static function at block scope.


Block Scope Data Declaration
File Scope Data Declarations


Examples Using static Storage Classes


Function Declarations
extern

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typedef

A typedef declaration lets you define your own identifiers that can be used in place of type specifiers such as int, float, and double. The names you define using typedef are not new data types. They are synonyms for the data types or combinations of data types they represent.

A typedef declaration does not reserve storage.

When an object is defined using a typedef identifier, the properties of the defined object are exactly the same as if the object were defined by explicitly listing the data type associated with the identifier.

The following statements declare LENGTH as a synonym for int, then use this typedef to declare length, width, and height as integral variables.

typedef int LENGTH;
LENGTH length, width, height;

The following declarations are equivalent to the above declaration:

int length, width, height;

Similarly, you can use typedef to define a struct type. For example:

typedef struct {
                int scruples;
                int drams;
                int grains;
               } WEIGHT;

The structure WEIGHT can then be used in the following declarations:

WEIGHT chicken, cow, horse, whale;

Type Specifiers
struct (Structures)
int, long, short

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Arrays

An array is an ordered group of data objects. Each object is called an element. All elements within an array have the same data type.

Use any type specifier in an array definition or declaration. Array elements can be of any data type, except function. You can, however, declare an array of pointers to functions.

 

Declaring an Array

identifier The name of the array. If preceded by an * (asterisk), the array is an array of pointers.
constant expression Positive integer expression describing the number of elements in a given dimension of the array. An array can have more than one dimension.

The following example defines a one-dimensional array that contains four elements having type char: 

char list[4];

The first subscript of each dimension is 0. The array list contains the elements: 

list[0]
list[1]
list[2]
list[3]

The following example defines a two-dimensional array that contains six elements of type int: 

int roster[3][2];

Multidimensional arrays are stored in row-major order. When elements are referred to in order of increasing storage location, the last subscript varies the fastest. For example, the elements of array roster are stored in the order: 

roster[0][0]
roster[0][1]
roster[1][0]
roster[1][1]
roster[2][0]
roster[2][1]

You can leave the first (and only the first) set of subscript brackets empty in

  • Array definitions that contain initializations
  • extern declarations
  • Parameter declarations.

In array definitions that leave the first set of subscript brackets empty, the initializer determines the number of elements in the first dimension. In a one-dimensional array, the number of initialized elements becomes the total number of elements. In a multidimensional array, the initializer is compared to the subscript declarator to determine the number of elements in the first dimension.

An unsubscripted array (for example, region instead of region[4]) represents a pointer whose value is the address of the first element of the array, provided the array has been previously declared. An unsubscripted array name with square brackets (for example, region[]) is allowed only when declaring arrays at file scope or in the argument list of a function declaration. In declarations, only the first dimension can be left empty, and you must specify the sizes of any additional dimensions declared.

Whenever an array is used in a context (such as a parameter) where it cannot be used as an array, the identifier is treated as a pointer. The only exceptions are when an array is used as an operand to the sizeof expression or with an address (&) operator.

 

Initializing Arrays
The initializer for an array contains the = symbol followed by a comma-separated list of constant expressions enclosed in braces ({ }). You do not need to initialize all elements in an array. Elements that are not initialized (in extern and static definitions only) receive the value 0 of the appropriate type. You cannot have more initializers than the number of elements in the array.

The initializer must be a constant expression if the structure has static storage duration or if you are compiling your source code in ansi mode.

Note: Array initializations can be either fully braced (with braces around each dimension) or unbraced (with only one set of braces enclosing the entire set of initializers). Avoid placing braces around some dimensions and not around others.

Initializing a one-dimensional character array
Initialize a one-dimensional character array by specifying:

  • A brace-enclosed comma-separated list of constants, each of which can be contained in a character
  • A string constant. (Braces surrounding the constant are optional.)

Initializing a string constant places the null character (\0) at the end of the string if there is room or if the array dimensions are not specified.

Initializing a multidimensional array
Initialize a multidimensional array by:

  • Listing the values of all elements you want to initialize, in the order that the compiler assigns the values. The compiler assigns values by increasing the subscript of the last dimension fastest. This form of a multidimensional array initialization looks like a one-dimensional array initialization. The following definition completely initializes the array month_days: 
       static month_days[2][12] =
   {
    31, 28, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31,
    31, 29, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31
   };
  • Using braces to group the values of the elements you want initialized. You can put braces around each element, or around any nesting level of elements. The following definition contains two elements in the first dimension. (You can consider these elements as rows.) The initialization contains braces around each of these two elements: 
       static int month_days[2][12] =
   {
    { 31, 28, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31 },
    { 31, 29, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31 }
   };
  • Using use nested braces to initialize dimensions and elements in a dimension selectively.

Constants - String Literals
Declarators
Initializers


Examples of Array Declaration and Use


Array Subscript
Pointers

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Incomplete Types

Incomplete types are the type void, an array of unknown size, or structure, union, or enumeration tags that have no member lists. For example, the following are incomplete types: 

void *incomplete_ptr;
struct dimension linear; /* no previous definition of dimension */

void is an incomplete type that cannot be completed. Incomplete structure or union and enumeration tags must be completed before being used to declare an object, although you can define a pointer to an incomplete structure or union.


void Type
Array Type
struct (Structures) Type
union (Unions) Type
void

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Data Type Qualifiers

Qualifier Description
const Explicitly declares a data object as a data item that cannot be changed. Its value is set at initialization. You cannot use const data objects in expressions requiring a modifiable lvalue. For example, a const data object cannot appear on the left-hand side of an assignment statement.
volatile Maintains consistency of memory access to data objects. It tells the compiler that the variable should always contain its current value even when optimized, so that the variable can be queried when an exception occurs. Volatile objects are read from memory each time their value is needed, and written back to memory each time they are changed.

The volatile qualifier is useful for data objects having values that may be changed in ways unknown to your program (such as the system clock). Portions of an expression that reference volatile objects are not to be changed or removed.

Note: These type qualifiers are only meaningful in expressions that are lvalues.

For a volatile or const pointer, you must put the keyword between the * and the identifier. For example: 

int * volatile x;     /* x is a volatile pointer to an int */
int * const y = &z;   /* y is a const pointer to the int variable z */

For a pointer to a volatile or const data object, the type specifier, qualifier, and storage class specifier can be in any order. For example: 

volatile int *x1;     /* x1 is a pointer to a volatile int  */
int volatile *x2;     /* x2 is a pointer to a volatile int  */
const int *y1;        /* y1 is a pointer to a const int  */
int const *y2;        /* y2 is a pointer to a const int  */

In the following example, the pointer to y is a constant. You can change the value that y points to, but you cannot change the value of y: 

int * const y

In the following example, the value that y points to is a constant integer and cannot be changed. However, you can change the value of y: 

const int * y

For other types of volatile and const variables, the position of the keyword within the definition (or declaration) is less important. For example: 

volatile struct omega {
                         int limit;
                         char code;
                      } group;

provides the same storage as: 

struct omega {
                int limit;
                char code;
             } volatile group;

In both examples above, only the structure variable group receives the volatile qualifier. Similarly, if you specified the const keyword instead of volatile, only the structure variable group receives the const qualifier. The const and volatile qualifiers when applied to a structure or union also apply to the members of the structure or union.

Although enumeration, structure, and union variables can receive the volatile or const qualifier, enumeration, structure, and union tags do not carry the volatile or const qualifier. For example, the blue structure does not carry the volatile qualifier: 

volatile struct whale {
                           int weight;
                           char name[8];
                      } beluga;
struct whale blue;

The keywords volatile and const cannot separate the keywords enum, struct, and union from their tags.

You cannot declare or define a volatile or const function but you can define or declare a function that returns a pointer to a volatile or const object.

You can put more than one qualifier on a declaration but you cannot specify the same qualifier more than once on a declaration.

If you put a type definition in the same declaration as a definition of a variable having the volatile or const qualifier, the qualifier applies to that variable only. For example: 

enum shape { round, square, triangular, oblong } volatile object;
enum shape appearance;

The variable object is defined as volatile. The variable appearance does not have the volatile qualifier. Similarly, if you specified the const keyword instead of volatile, only the variable object receives the const qualifier.

 

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=r]0*t֤bI\;*T)čX .Qv `I"JAҼQ"{]ؐ``ȉ1uřSHRH.THk2A˱ 8EJfSP%r5l\:0A*R#)%]0HRH.THkLJ.ĀP ]2%)u$IH?W*$@5k ]& $u$IH?W*$@5ka˱ =XNeV֤% ^\Hؙk|b@{( [T:Ԓ$+˕ i.6L@Xemu##Tۊ[T q0n RLIc+bmRJA=Ґt&)#JD8qÇcR(˘62bFR\$r`8q%eTǁN K 6Ddڐc)#H:G"-#b^ l$4#v:7':#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rucldun.htmifm $    aenot <>hilprsu"/bcdfgm.=wy,0;kqv#123:ITUx%&()56ADFNSz{}'4789CMY[\]*-BLOVX_EPQjJ֩AҺ:uTm| [2}fuԔIPAqF h'Fr;!ǕO0Xܚk]%0HcriYF aZ#uAӥpk #n8n)jČ$Б얅.Zde&}ɴ$m *-V̸iRGX9H?GҔJbFpSKX+ܤ#JA#ԃ}JAt@wM2=yDfy.υoɴW6""ѤS𿫯rm[ɛWy|-#4|<,+7&P :\qeykp+l׆W/^eCyi]x2»y}QL;:,}ǠeVWv/26T_6 ѤS$w)A6DܤKkPD^3 [2<5f)#H:),4$aae@{$&6 c aZ#na#8HRd#U^!E٬ˇtul♫e] Q-γ/W\-!#JA#ԃuAӥpk #n8n)jČ RhFOHj>:W6PEuoiw?UC;(?uqLT {_ơsExn>AW^6̱.RXi$HdʀITLl 7µbFptF)#H?\;FOVT=ӟPt :\;ٗɛ>W-]|/aͣHhGZA95͠f_NXGW'/eLwU&RGPRʑiuA_ӺTu\qs.#W];szZGWѵ{W\kpS,A95ͤ{0>8;PwDa];ucB$HANlPטA]:wT6ʑiu]t{YtAt$4:9ғgshA ~$:9`4 h`b Վm+szXG40$:9]Վm!Օ"###$4:9KkPEfy+f_y{$Hzt ~Ym|>^!ʢlerYp˖n>L!hXyA_W]0嘨2<5f+бX2ɁH<^yTKe"e;,;PNn] e{$ЎܤK]}uOuhXy]0嘨2<5f)/Er]{kW^6̿B8 c Q-f_*v~ur(}qyL*eןf_\ߢB:Grt.P fT[.2S[͕ٗ𿫝-h>$6y$I U|?{OAʝ\-fXܤK]rq}U e<+!|S5W]0嘠lIa1DR<5f+FZO;r+fZN͌7^y9pٽsf_aW^6̾kT6uxkWE' s1E' 醿,M¨Gult_b;qerevo&o]dYW\O:2`Z^5* bs}' tmx2|4!LhfZNl|7FO_fXܤK]rL=6ׂi]d}]rjf_6"ӺYR-#W^6̾/dSHAt$4:9ғ2(_ceH@xbɔ'xa{x(G40,p$:9bTRnRL5f(lLKfuOA]p{$60fy߫E˶Y 6Dt :\_b6~V̸$xkRHzp-rZ,ڽ_$_PexkNͣH˜h>獳.\S5W\kpS,A2ḭkPKXeX@ ~YA̾x:al2+^eC}6y3yl|S `u<0o ^pW\S /!e4sS4+|/ٗ#w)A&^Xr0+f\<5f)$=H8JٗɛW*l♫*lw}sh)Z7$__lV̸qLwD_;&Z)Mfal˂GT!#H:G6\_bxkWś._^{uuDp6ddٲy"c +AGe_b'eQI\U|ܤ#$4:9K)_ybٗɛWIBTAʢ[/L}W\[, |Iؾ?ٖ#rkA\]rL<5'bw)ACpҐKJNꡯ;D!?6̾ /y?[rwP^D_;: ؿC>;JA9 CCJAtBrG600o 葁)A~0e el&qLw*lwHbtR!ͥ >Fٗ e@b <5'|Am~ ďҐtCpҐt.PB_+NMsj_W\4|93|I5Q^aӺ>JGPR! 6WNꊐJGP :\:Xr0ec WmE?a_W[-]?7#f_C6">+_v/AleCD_Ey[^㫊f#yTKemE>_^|$6ׄ^3u=W/3ٗ/D_Pe:wUjGP=#H:G6\RwUf_7?[rw1###$4:9K]p{$:wTBGW+uD}r߆[!ljExŠ6 PW+뗍n e᳴m^Êc[̫O~> :HnRsIQOrx $}$w>rG6[ԃ!ǕO0Xܚk]%0HcriYF aZ#uAӥqL+V$` <HɕIc aZ#04na#3,HNY4Ī$$B^PD_;G$L0M;`91*eB^PB٬#ʒCԃzE@&m^ p\f̌\h>*Kg02=n10XhtF#)$=H?gXfbKJ/M8e'&fZ-γ/͕P*HR),4$aae@{1׈10X`8na#3,Hω-)!zh/q(!dmmpT<$=H?gXZT4B^T5'x kNRG$L3KBnx頳h)u2-|Iؾ\%lA]E?NX[ fZG$L3KJh頽 >vxD[2|<$=H?gXZL4B^T6uyRHz[#>$頽 G$L3KI҄/M8ehQTZG$L3m^ p0k *HR Ҹ|X7r-a$gw)HRH dҐt.RGrt3,H @ci㓖M;`91B<H@lPab acr1SČ2<HaBԃuR6 k>$v:7':#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rucldvd.htmifm $ void

void

The void data type always represents an empty set of values. The only object that can be declared with the type specifier void is a pointer.

When a function does not return a value, you should use void as the type specifier in the function definition and declaration. An argument list for a function taking no arguments is void.

You cannot declare a variable of type void, but you can explicitly convert any expression to type void with the resulting expression used only as one of the following:

  • An expression statement
  • The left operand of a comma expression
  • The second or third operand in a conditional expression.

Example of a void Declaration

-]| kN$R v:7':#R ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruclfdc.htmifm$ Function Declarations

Function Declarations

A function declaration establishes the name and the parameters of the function.

A function is declared implicitly by its appearance in an expression if it has not been defined or declared previously; the implicit declaration is equivalent to a declaration of extern int func_name(). The default return type of a function is int.

To indicate that the function does not return a value, declare it with a return type of void.

A function cannot be declared as returning a data object having a volatile or const type but it can return a pointer to a volatile or const object. Also, a function cannot return a value that has a type of array or function.

If the called function returns a value that has a type other than int, you must declare the function before the function call. Even if a called function returns a type int, explicitly declaring the function prior to its call is good programming practice.

Some declarations do not have parameter lists; the declarations simply specify the types of parameters and the return values, such as in the following example: 

int func(int,long);

Functions
Function Calls


Example of the main() Function
Examples of Function Declarations
Examples of Function Definitions


main() Function
Function Definitions

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break

A break statement lets you end an iterative (do, for, while) or switch statement and exit from it at any point other than the logical end.

In an iterative statement, the break statement ends the loop and moves control to the next statement outside the loop. Within nested statements, the break statement ends only the smallest enclosing do, for, switch, or while statement.

In a switch body, the break passes control out of the switch body to the next statement outside the switch body.

 

Restrictions
A break statement can appear only in the body of an iterative statement or a switch statement.


Examples Using the break Statement


do Statement
for Statement
switch Statement
while Statement

 kV$v:7':#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruclscnt.htmifm$ continue

continue

A continue statement lets you end the current iteration of a loop. Program control is passed from the continue statement to the end of the loop body.

The continue statement ends the processing of the action part of an iterative (do, for, or while) statement and moves control to the condition part of the statement. If the iterative statement is a for statement, control moves to the third expression in the condition part of the statement, then to the second expression (the test) in the condition part of the statement.

Within nested statements, the continue statement ends only the current iteration of the do, for, or while statement immediately enclosing it.

 

Restrictions
A continue statement can only appear within the body of an iterative statement.


Examples Using the continue Statement


do Statement
for Statement
while Statement

. k>$w:7':#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruclsdo.htmifm$ do

do

A do statement repeatedly runs a statement until the test expression evaluates to 0. Because of the order of processing, the statement is run at least once.

The body of the loop is run before the controlling while clause is evaluated. Further processing of the do statement depends on the value of the while clause. If the while clause does not evaluate to 0, the statement runs again. When the while clause evaluates to 0, the statement ends. The controlling expression must be evaluate to a scalar type.

A break, return, or goto statement can cause the processing of a do statement to end, even when the while clause does not evaluate to 0.


Example Using the do Statement


break Statement
goto Statement
return Statement
while Statement

src= k@$rw:7':#r./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruclsexp.htmifm$ Expressions

Expressions

An expression statement contains an expression. The expression can be null.

An expression statement evaluates the given expression, which can then be assigned to a variable or used as an argument in a function call. Some examples are:

printf("Account Number: \n");           /* call to the printf     */
marks = dollars * exch_rate;            /* assignment to marks    */
(difference <0) ? ++losses : ++gain;    /* conditional increment  */
switches=flags | BIT_MASK;              /* assignment to switches */

Types of Expressions

>

for

for

A for statement lets you do the following:

  • Evaluate an expression before the first iteration of the statement (initialization)
  • Specify an expression to determine whether or not the statement should be processed (controlling part)
  • Evaluate an expression after each iteration of the statement
  • Repeatedly process the statement if the controlling part does not evaluate to zero.

Arguments to the for statement are:

expression1 Is the initialization expression. It is evaluated only before the statement is processed for the first time. You can use this expression to initialize a variable. If you do not want to evaluate an expression prior to the first iteration of the statement, you can omit this expression.
expression2 Is the controlling part. It is evaluated before each iteration of the statement. It must evaluate to a scalar type.

If it evaluates to 0 (zero), the statement is not processed and control moves to the next statement following the for statement. If expression2 does not evaluate to 0, the statement is processed. If you omit expression2, it is as if the expression had been replaced by a nonzero constant, and the for statement is not terminated by failure of this condition.
expression3 Is evaluated after each iteration of the statement. You can use this expression to increase, decrease, or reinitialize a variable. This expression is optional.

A break, return, or goto statement can cause a for statement to end, even when the second expression does not evaluate to 0. If you omit expression2, you must use a break, return, or goto statement to end the for statement.


Examples Using the for Statement


break Statement
goto Statement
return Statement

 k$w:7':#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruclsgot.htmifm$ goto

goto

A goto statement causes your program to unconditionally transfer control to the statement associated with the label specified on the goto statement.

Because the goto statement can interfere with the normal sequence of processing, it makes a program more difficult to read and maintain. Often, a break statement, a continue statement, or a function call can eliminate the need for a goto statement.

If you use a goto statement to transfer control to a statement inside of a loop or block, initializations of automatic storage for the loop do not take place and the result is undefined. The label must appear in the same function as the goto.


Example Using the goto Statement


break Statement
continue Statement

tro kꀒ$w:7':#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruclsif.htmifm$ if / else

if / else

An if statement lets you conditionally process a statement when the specified test expression evaluates to a nonzero value. The expression must evaluate to a scalar type. You can optionally specify an else clause on the if statement. If the test expression evaluates to 0 and an else clause exists, the statement associated with the else clause runs. If the test expression evaluates to a nonzero value, the statement following the expression runs and the else clause is ignored.

When if statements are nested and else clauses are present, a given else is associated with the closest preceding if statement within the same block.


Examples Using the if/else Statement

r> < k$w:7':#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruclsnul.htmifm$ Null Statement

Null Statement

The null statement performs no operation.

A null statement can hold the label of a labeled statement or complete the syntax of an iterative statement.


Examples using the Null Statement

claus k$b w:7':#b ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruclsrtn.htmifm$ return

return

A return statement ends the processing of the current function and returns control to the caller of the function.

A return statement in a function is optional. The compiler issues a warning if a return statement is not found in a function declared with a return type. If the end of a function is reached without encountering a return statement, control is passed to the caller as if a return statement without an expression were encountered. A function can contain multiple return statements.

 

Value of a return Expression and Function Value
If an expression is present on a return statement, the value of the expression is returned to the caller. If the data type of the expression is different from the function return type, conversion of the return value takes place as if the value of the expression were assigned to an object with the same function return type.

If an expression is not present on a return statement, the value of the return statement is undefined. If an expression is not given on a return statement in a function declared with a nonvoid return type, a warning message is issued, and the result of calling the function is unpredictable.

You cannot use a return statement with an expression when the function is declared as returning type void.


Examples Using the return Statement


Expression Statement

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while

A while statement repeatedly runs the body of a loop until the controlling expression evaluates to 0.

The expression is evaluated to determine whether or not to process the body of the loop. The expression must be convertible to a scalar type.

If the expression evaluates to 0, the body of the loop never runs.

If the expression does not evaluate to 0, the loop body is processed. After the body has run, control passes back to the expression. Further processing depends on the value of the condition.

A break, return, or goto statement can cause a while statement to end, even when the condition does not evaluate to 0.


Example Using the while Statement


break Statement
goto Statement
return Statement

 k$w:7':#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruclxass.htmifm$ Assignment Operators

Assignment Operators

Operators Description
= Simple Assignment

The simple assignment operator stores the value of the right operand in the object designated by the left operand.

Both operands must have arithmetic types, the same structure type, or the same union type. Otherwise, both operands must be pointers to the same type, or the left operand must be a pointer and the right operand must be the constant 0 or NULL. If the language level is extended, both operands can be pointers to different types.

If both operands have arithmetic types, the system converts the type of the right operand to the type of the left operand before the assignment.

If the left operand is a pointer and the right operand is the constant 0, the result is NULL.

Pointers to void can appear on either side of the simple assignment operator.

A packed structure or union can be assigned to a nonpacked structure or union of the same type, and a nonpacked structure or union can be assigned to a packed structure or union of the same type.

If one operand is packed and the other is not, the layout of the right operand is remapped to match the layout of the left. This remapping of structures might degrade performance. For efficiency, when you perform assignment operations with structures or unions, you should ensure that both operands are either packed or nonpacked.

Note: If you assign pointers to structures or unions, the objects they point to must both be either packed or nonpacked.

You can assign values to operands with the type qualifier volatile. You cannot assign a pointer of an object with the type qualifier const to a pointer of an object without the const type qualifier. For example: 

const int *p1;
int *p2;
p2 = p1;  /* this is NOT allowed */

p1 = p2;  /* this IS allowed */

Note: The assignment (=) operator should not be confused with the equality operator (==).

For example, 

if(x == 3)
 evaluates to 1 if x is equal to three. Equality tests like this should be coded with spaces between the operator and the operands to prevent unintentional assignments. 
if(x = 3)
 is taken to be true because (x = 3) evaluates to a non-zero value (3). The expression also assigns the value 3 to x.
+=
-=
*=
/=
%=
<<=
>>=
&=
^=
|=		 Compound Assignment

The compound assignment operators consist of a binary operator and the simple assignment operator. They perform the operation of the binary operator on both operands and give the result of that operation to the left operand.

The following table shows the operand types of compound assignment expressions:

Operator Left Operand Right Operand
+= or -= Arithmetic Arithmetic
+= or -= Pointer Integral type
*=, /*, and %/ Arithmetic Arithmetic
<<=, >>=, &=, ^=, and |= Integral type Integral type

Note that the expression a *= b + c is equivalent to a = a * (b + c), and not a = a * b + c.


Operator Precedence and Associativity
Expressions and Operators
Types of Expressions


Examples Using Compound Assignment Operators


Operator Precedence and Associativity Table
Primary Operators
Unary Operators
Binary Operators
Conditional Operator
Comma Operator
Data Type Qualifiers

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Comma Operator ( , )

A comma expression contains two operands separated by a comma. Although the compiler evaluates both operands, the value of the right operand is the value of the expression. The left operand is evaluated, possibly producing side effects, and the value is discarded. The result of a comma expression is not an lvalue.

Both operands of a comma expression can have any type. All comma expressions have left-to-right associativity. The left operand is fully evaluated before the right operand.

In the following example, if omega has the value 11, the expression increments delta and assigns the value 3 to alpha: 

alpha = (delta++, omega % 4);

Any number of expressions separated by commas can form a single expression. The compiler evaluates the leftmost expression first. The value of the rightmost expression becomes the value of the entire expression.

For example, the value of the expression: 

intensity++, shade * increment, rotate(direction);

is the value of the expression: 

rotate(direction)

The primary use of the comma operator is to produce side effects in the following situations:

  • Calling a function
  • Entering or repeating an iteration loop
  • Testing a condition
  • Other situations where a side effect is required but the result of the expression is not immediately needed

To use the comma operator in a context where the comma has other meanings, such as in a list of function arguments or a list of initializers, you must enclose the comma operator in parentheses. For example, the function 

f(a, (t = 3, t + 2), c);

has only three arguments: the value of a, the value 5, and the value of c. The value of the second argument is the result of the comma expression in parentheses: 

t = 3, t + 2

which has the value 5.


Operator Precedence and Associativity
Expressions and Operators
Types of Expressions


Examples Using the Comma Operator ( , )


Operator Precedence and Associativity Table
Primary Operators
Unary Operators
Binary Operators
Conditional Operator
Assignment Operators

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_debug_calloc - Allocate and Initialize Memory

Format 

#include <stdlib.h>   /* also in <malloc.h> */
void *_debug_calloc(size_t num, size_t size,
                    const char *file, size_t line);

Language Level: Extension

_debug_calloc is the debug version of calloc. Like calloc, it allocates memory from the default heap for an array of num elements, each of length size bytes. It then initializes all bits of each element to 0.

In addition, _debug_calloc makes an implicit call to _heap_check, and stores the name of the file file and the line number line where the storage is allocated. This information can be used later by the _heap_check, _dump_allocated or _dump_allocated_delta functions.

To use _debug_calloc, you must compile with the debug memory -qheapdebug compiler option. This option maps all calloc calls to _debug_calloc.

Note: The -qheapdebug option maps all calls to memory management functions (including heap-specific versions) to their debug counterparts. To prevent a call from being mapped, parenthesize the function name.

To reallocate or free memory allocated by _debug_calloc, use _debug_realloc and _debug_free; you can also use realloc and free if you do not want debug information about the operation.

A heap-specific version (_debug_ucalloc) is available. _debug_calloc always allocates memory from the default heap.

Return Value
_debug_calloc returns a pointer to the reserved space. If not enough memory is available, or if num or size is 0, _debug_calloc returns NULL.

Example
This example reserves storage of 100 bytes. It then attempts to write to storage that was not allocated. When _debug_calloc is called again, _heap_check detects the error, generates several messages, and stops the program.

Note: You must compile this example with the -qheapdebug option to map the calloc calls to _debug_calloc.

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
   char *ptr1, *ptr2;
   if (NULL == (ptr1 = (char*)calloc(1, 100))) {
      puts("Could not allocate memory block.");
      exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
   }
   memset(ptr1, 'a', 105);         /* overwrites storage that was not allocated */
   ptr2 = (char*)calloc(2, 20);      /* this call to calloc invokes _heap_check */
   puts("_debug_calloc did not detect that a memory block was overwritten.");
   return 0;
   /****************************************************************************
      The output should be similar to:
      End of allocated object 0x00073890 was overwritten at 0x000738f4.
      The first eight bytes of the memory block (in hex) are: 6161616161616161.
      This memory block was (re)allocated at line number 9 in _debug_callo.c.
      Heap state was valid at line 9 of _debug_callo.c.
      Memory error detected at line 14 of _debug_callo.c.
   ****************************************************************************/
}

Debugging Memory Heaps
Memory Management Functions
Managing Memory with Multiple Memory Heaps


Debugging Problems with Heap Memory


-qheapdebug Compiler Option
_debug_free - Free Allocated Memory
_debug_heapmin - Free Unused Memory in the Default Heap
_debug_malloc - Allocate Memory
_debug_memcpy - Copy Bytes
_debug_memmove - Copy Bytes
_debug_memset - Set Bytes to Value
_debug_realloc - Reallocate Memory Block
_debug_strcat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strcpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strncat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strncpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strnset - Set Characters in String
_debug_strset - Set Characters in String
_debug_ucalloc - Reserve and Initialize Memory from User Heap
_debug_uheapmin - Free Unused Memory in User Heap
_debug_umalloc - Reserve Memory Block from User Heap
-qheapdebug

s k$x:7':#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rudbgfre.htmifm$ _debug_free

_debug_free - Free Allocated Memory

Format

#include <stdlib.h>    /* also in <malloc.h> */
void _debug_free(void *ptr, const char *file,
                        size_t line);

Language Level: Extension

_debug_free is the debug version of free. Like free, it frees the block of memory pointed to by ptr. _debug_free also sets each block of freed memory to 0xFB, so you can easily locate instances where your program uses the data in freed memory.

In addition, _debug_free makes an implicit call to the _heap_check, and stores the file name file and the line number line where the memory is freed. This information can be used later by the _heap_check, _dump_allocated, or _dump_allocated_delta functions.

To use _debug_free, you must compile with the debug memory -qheapdebug compiler option. This option maps all free calls to _debug_free.

Note: The -qheapdebug option maps all calls to memory management functions (including heap-specific versions) to their debug counterparts. To prevent a call from being mapped, parenthesize the function name.

Because _debug_free always checks what heap the memory was allocated from, you can use _debug_free to free memory blocks allocated by the regular, heap-specific, or debug versions of the memory management functions. However, if the memory was not allocated by the memory management functions, or was previously freed, _debug_free generates an error message and the program ends.

Return Value
There is no return value.

Example
This example reserves two blocks, one of 10 bytes and the other of 20 bytes. It then frees the first block and attempts to overwrite the freed storage. When _debug_free is called a second time, _heap_check detects the error, prints out several messages, and stops the program.

Note: You must compile this example with the -qheapdebug option to map the free calls to _debug_free.

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
   char *ptr1, *ptr2;
   if (NULL == (ptr1 = (char*)malloc(10)) || NULL == (ptr2 = (char*)malloc(20))) {
      puts("Could not allocate memory block.");
      exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
   }
   free(ptr1);
   memset(ptr1, 'a', 5);      /* overwrites storage that has been freed       */
   free(ptr2);                 /* this call to free invokes _heap_check       */
   puts("_debug_free did not detect that a freed memory block was overwritten.");
   return 0;
   /****************************************************************************
      The output should be similar to:
      Free heap was overwritten at 0x00073890.
      Heap state was valid at line 12 of _debug_free.c.
      Memory error detected at line 14 of _debug_free.c.
   ****************************************************************************/
}

Debugging Memory Heaps
Memory Management Functions
Managing Memory with Multiple Memory Heaps


Debugging Problems with Heap Memory


-qheapdebug Compiler Option
_debug_calloc - Allocate and Initialize Memory
_debug_heapmin - Free Unused Memory in the Default Heap
_debug_malloc - Allocate Memory
_debug_memcpy - Copy Bytes
_debug_memmove - Copy Bytes
_debug_memset - Set Bytes to Value
_debug_realloc - Reallocate Memory Block
_debug_strcat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strcpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strncat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strncpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strnset - Set Characters in String
_debug_strset - Set Characters in String
_debug_ucalloc - Reserve and Initialize Memory from User Heap
_debug_uheapmin - Free Unused Memory in User Heap
_debug_umalloc - Reserve Memory Block from User Heap
-qheapdebug

p> _debug_heapmin

_debug_heapmin - Free Unused Memory in the Default Heap

Format

#include <stdlib.h>  /* also in <malloc.h> */
int _debug_heapmin(const char *file, size_t line);

Language Level: Extension

_debug_heapmin is the debug version of _heapmin. Like _heapmin, it returns all unused memory from the default runtime heap to the operating system.

In addition, _debug_heapmin makes an implicit call to _heap_check, and stores the file name file and the line number line where the memory is returned. This information can be used later by the _heap_check function.

To use _debug_heapmin, you must compile with the debug memory -qheapdebug compiler option. This option maps all _heapmin calls to _debug_heapmin.

Note: The -qheapdebug option maps all calls to memory management functions (including heap-specific versions) to their debug counterparts. To prevent a call from being mapped, parenthesize the function name.

A heap-specific version of this function (_debug_uheapmin) is also available. _debug_heapmin always operates on the default heap.

Return Value
If successful, _debug_heapmin returns 0; otherwise, it returns -1.

Example
This example allocates 10000 bytes of storage, changes the storage size to 10 bytes, and then uses _debug_heapmin to return the unused memory to the operating system. The program then attempts to overwrite memory that was not allocated. When _debug_heapmin is called again, _heap_check detects the error, generates several messages, and stops the program.

Note: You must compile this example with the -qheapdebug option to map the _heapmin calls to _debug_heapmin.

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
   char *ptr;
   /* Allocate a large object from the system */
   if (NULL == (ptr = (char*)malloc(100000))) {
      puts("Could not allocate memory block.");
      exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
   }
   ptr = (char*)realloc(ptr, 10);
   _heapmin();                /* No allocation problems to detect             */
   *(ptr - 1) = 'a';          /* Overwrite memory that was not allocated      */
   _heapmin();                /* This call to _heapmin invokes _heap_check    */
   puts("_debug_heapmin did not detect that a non-allocated memory block"
        "was overwritten.");
   return 0;
   /****************************************************************************
      Possible output is:
      Header information of object 0x000738b0 was overwritten at 0x000738ac.
      The first eight bytes of the memory block (in hex) are: AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA.
      This memory block was (re)allocated at line number 13 in _debug_heapm.c.
      Heap state was valid at line 14 of _debug_heapm.c.
      Memory error detected at line 17 of _debug_heapm.c.
   ****************************************************************************/
}

Debugging Memory Heaps
Memory Management Functions
Managing Memory with Multiple Memory Heaps


Debugging Problems with Heap Memory


-qheapdebug Compiler Option
_debug_calloc - Allocate and Initialize Memory
_debug_free - Free Allocated Memory
_debug_malloc - Allocate Memory
_debug_memcpy - Copy Bytes
_debug_memmove - Copy Bytes
_debug_memset - Set Bytes to Value
_debug_realloc - Reallocate Memory Block
_debug_strcat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strcpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strncat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strncpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strnset - Set Characters in String
_debug_strset - Set Characters in String
_debug_ucalloc - Reserve and Initialize Memory from User Heap
_debug_uheapmin - Free Unused Memory in User Heap
_debug_umalloc - Reserve Memory Block from User Heap
-qheapdebug

ogra kꐖ$-x:7':#-./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rudbgmal.htmifm$ _debug_malloc

_debug_malloc - Allocate Memory

Format

#include <stdlib.h>  /* also in <malloc.h> */
void *_debug_malloc(size_t size,
                    const char *file, size_t line);

Language Level: Extension

_debug_malloc is the debug version of malloc. Like malloc, it reserves a block of storage of size bytes from the default heap. _debug_malloc also sets all the memory it allocates to 0xAA, so you can easily locate instances where your program uses the data in the memory without initializing it first.

In addition, _debug_malloc makes an implicit call to _heap_check, and stores the file name file and the line number line where the storage is allocated. This information can later be used by the _heap_check , _dump_allocated, or _dump_allocated_delta functions.

To use _debug_malloc, you must compile with the debug memory -qheapdebug compiler option. This option maps all malloc calls to _debug_malloc.

Note: The -qheapdebug option maps all calls to memory management functions (including heap-specific versions) to their debug counterparts. To prevent a call from being mapped, parenthesize the function name.

To reallocate or free memory allocated by _debug_malloc, use _debug_realloc and _debug_free; you can also use realloc and free if you do not want debug information about the operation.

A heap-specific version of this function (_debug_umalloc) is also available. _debug_malloc always allocates memory from the default heap.

Return Value
_debug_malloc returns a pointer to the reserved space. If not enough memory is available or if size is 0, _debug_malloc returns NULL.

Example
This example allocates 100 bytes of storage. It then attempts to write to storage that was not allocated. When _debug_malloc is called again, _heap_check detects the error, generates several messages, and stops the program.

Note: You must compile this example with the -qheapdebug option to map the malloc calls to _debug_malloc.

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
   char *ptr1, *ptr2;
   if (NULL == (ptr1 = (char*)malloc(100))) {
      puts("Could not allocate memory block.");
      exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
   }
   *(ptr1 - 1) = 'a';        /* overwrites storage that was not allocated    */
   ptr2 = (char*)malloc(10); /* this call to malloc invokes _heap_check      */
   puts("_debug_malloc did not detect that a memory block was overwritten.");
   return 0;
   /****************************************************************************
      Possible output is:
      Header information of object 0x00073890 was overwritten at 0x0007388c.
      The first eight bytes of the memory block (in hex) are: AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA.
      This memory block was (re)allocated at line number 8 in _debug_mallo.c.
      Heap state was valid at line 8 of _debug_mallo.c.
      Memory error detected at line 13 of _debug_mallo.c.
   ****************************************************************************/
}

Debugging Memory Heaps
Memory Management Functions
Managing Memory with Multiple Memory Heaps


Debugging Problems with Heap Memory


-qheapdebug Compiler Option
_debug_calloc - Allocate and Initialize Memory
_debug_free - Free Allocated Memory
_debug_heapmin - Free Unused Memory in the Default Heap
_debug_memcpy - Copy Bytes
_debug_memmove - Copy Bytes
_debug_memset - Set Bytes to Value
_debug_realloc - Reallocate Memory Block
_debug_strcat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strcpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strncat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strncpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strnset - Set Characters in String
_debug_strset - Set Characters in String
_debug_ucalloc - Reserve and Initialize Memory from User Heap
_debug_uheapmin - Free Unused Memory in User Heap
_debug_umalloc - Reserve Memory Block from User Heap
-qheapdebug

es  kꐈ$ax:7':#a./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rudbgmcp.htmifm$ _debug_memcpy

_debug_memcpy - Copy Bytes

Format

#include <string.h>
void *_debug_memcpy(void *dest, const void *src, size_t count,
                    const char *file, size_t line);

Language Level: Extension

_debug_memcpy is the debug version of memcpy. Like memcpy, it copies count bytes of src to dest, where the behavior is undefined if copying takes place between objects that overlap.

_debug_memcpy validates the heap after copying the bytes to the target location, and performs this check only when the target is within a heap. _debug_memcpy makes an implicit call to _heap_check. If _debug_memcpy detects a corrupted heap when it makes a call to _heap_check, _debug_memcpy will report the file name file and line number line in a message.

Note: _debug_memcpy checks only the current default heap. Therefore, this debug support will not check all heaps within applications that have multiple user heaps.

To use _debug_memcpy, you must compile with the debug memory -qheapdebug compiler option. This option maps all memcpy calls to _debug_memcpy. You do not have to change your source code, in order for _debug_memcpy to verify the heap.

Note: The -qheapdebug option maps all calls to other string functions and all calls to memory management functions (including a heap-specific version), to their debug counterparts. To prevent a call from being mapped, parenthesize the function name.

Return Value
_debug_memcpy returns a pointer to dest.

Example
This example contains a programming error. On the memcpy used to initialize the target location, the count is more than the size of the target object, and the memcpy operation copies bytes past the end of the allocated object.

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#define  MAX_LEN       10
int main(void)
{
   char *source, *target;
   target = (char*)malloc(MAX_LEN);
   memcpy(target, "This is the target string", 11);
   printf("Target is \"%s\"\n", target);
   return 0;
   /****************************************************************************
      The output should be similar to:
      End of allocated object 0x00073c80 was overwritten at 0x00073c8a.
      The first eight bytes of the memory block (in hex) are: 5468697320697320.
      This memory block was (re)allocated at line number 11 in memcpy.c.
      Heap state was valid at line 11 of memcpy.c.
      Memory error detected at line 12 of memcpy.c.
   ****************************************************************************/
}

Debugging Memory Heaps
Memory Management Functions
Managing Memory with Multiple Memory Heaps


Debugging Problems with Heap Memory


-qheapdebug Compiler Option
_debug_calloc - Allocate and Initialize Memory
_debug_free - Free Allocated Memory
_debug_heapmin - Free Unused Memory in the Default Heap
_debug_malloc - Allocate Memory
_debug_memmove - Copy Bytes
_debug_memset - Set Bytes to Value
_debug_realloc - Reallocate Memory Block
_debug_strcat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strcpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strncat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strncpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strnset - Set Characters in String
_debug_strset - Set Characters in String
_debug_ucalloc - Reserve and Initialize Memory from User Heap
_debug_uheapmin - Free Unused Memory in User Heap
_debug_umalloc - Reserve Memory Block from User Heap
-qheapdebug

a heap- kꞲ$x:7':#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rudbgmmv.htmifm$ _debug_memmove

_debug_memmove - Copy Bytes

Format

#include <string.h>
void *_debug_memmove(void *dest, const void *src, size_t count,
                    const char *file, size_t line);

Language Level: Extension

_debug_memmove is the debug version of memmove. Like memmove, it copies count bytes of src to dest, and allows for copying between objects that may overlap.

_debug_memmove validates the heap after copying the bytes to the target location, and performs this check only when the target is within a heap. _debug_memmove makes an implicit call to _heap_check. If _debug_memmove detects a corrupted heap when it makes a call to _heap_check, _debug_memmove will report the file name file and line number line in a message.

Note: _debug_memmove checks only the current default heap. Therefore, this debug support will not check all heaps within applications that have multiple user heaps.

To use _debug_memmove, you must compile with the debug memory -qheapdebug compiler option. This option maps all memcpy calls to _debug_memmove. You do not have to change your source code, in order for _debug_memmove to verify the heap.

Note: The -qheapdebug option maps all calls to other string functions and all calls to memory management functions (including a heap-specific version), to their debug counterparts. To prevent a call from being mapped, parenthesize the function name.

Return Value
_debug_memmove returns a pointer to dest.

Example
This example contains a programming error. The count specified on memmove is 15 instead of 5, and the memmove operation copies bytes past the end of the allocated object.

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#define  SIZE          21
int main(void)
{
   char *target, *p, *source;
   target = (char*)malloc(SIZE);
   strcpy(target, "a shiny white sphere");
   p = target+8;                    /* p points at the starting character
                                       of the word we want to replace   */
   source = target+2;               /* start of "shiny" */
   printf("Before memmove, target is \"%s\"\n", target);
   memmove(p, source, 15);
   printf("After memmove, target becomes \"%s\"\n", target);
   return 0;
   /****************************************************************************
      The output should be similar to:
      Before memmove, target is "a shiny white sphere"
      End of allocated object 0x00073c80 was overwritten at 0x00073c95.
      The first eight bytes of the memory block (in hex) are: 61207368696E7920.
      This memory block was (re)allocated at line number 11 in memmove.c.
      Heap state was valid at line 12 of memmove.c.
      Memory error detected at line 18 of memcpy.c.
   ****************************************************************************/
}

Debugging Memory Heaps
Memory Management Functions
Managing Memory with Multiple Memory Heaps


Debugging Problems with Heap Memory


-qheapdebug Compiler Option
_debug_calloc - Allocate and Initialize Memory
_debug_free - Free Allocated Memory
_debug_heapmin - Free Unused Memory in the Default Heap
_debug_malloc - Allocate Memory
_debug_memcpy - Copy Bytes
_debug_memset - Set Bytes to Value
_debug_realloc - Reallocate Memory Block
_debug_strcat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strcpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strncat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strncpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strnset - Set Characters in String
_debug_strset - Set Characters in String
_debug_ucalloc - Reserve and Initialize Memory from User Heap
_debug_uheapmin - Free Unused Memory in User Heap
_debug_umalloc - Reserve Memory Block from User Heap
-qheapdebug

 k4$y:7':#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rudbgmst.htmifm$ _debug_memset

_debug_memset - Set Bytes to Value

Format

#include <string.h>
void *_debug_memset(void *dest, int c, size_t count,
                    const char *file, size_t line);

Language Level: Extension

_debug_memset is the debug version of memset. Like memset, it sets the first count bytes of dest to the value c. The value of c is converted to an unsigned character.

_debug_memset validates the heap after setting the bytes, and performs this check only when the target is within a heap. _debug_memset makes an implicit call to _heap_check. If _debug_memset detects a corrupted heap when it makes a call to _heap_check, _debug_memset will report the file name file and line number line in a message.

Note: _debug_memset checks only the current default heap. Therefore, this debug support will not check all heaps within applications that have multiple user heaps.

To use _debug_memset, you must compile with the debug memory -qheapdebug compiler option. This option maps all memset calls to _debug_memset. You do not have to change your source code, in order for _debug_memset to verify the heap.

Note: The -qheapdebug option maps all calls to other string functions and all calls to memory management functions (including a heap-specific version), to their debug counterparts. To prevent a call from being mapped, parenthesize the function name.

Return Value
_debug_memset returns a pointer to dest.

Example
This example contains a programming error. The invocation of memset that puts 'B' in the buffer specifies the wrong count, and stores bytes past the end of the buffer.

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#define  BUF_SIZE      20
int main(void)
{
   char *buffer, *buffer2;
   char *string;
   buffer = (char*)calloc(1, BUF_SIZE+1);    /* +1 for null-terminator */
   string = (char*)memset(buffer, 'A', 10);
   printf("\nBuffer contents: %s\n", string);
   memset(buffer+10, 'B', 20);
   return 0;
   /****************************************************************************
      The output should be:
      Buffer contents: AAAAAAAAAA
      End of allocated object 0x00073c80 was overwritten at 0x00073c95.
      The first eight bytes of the memory block (in hex) are: 4141414141414141.
      This memory block was (re)allocated at line number 12 in memset.c.
      Heap state was valid at line 14 of memset.c.
      Memory error detected at line 16 of memset.c.
   ****************************************************************************/
}

Debugging Memory Heaps
Memory Management Functions
Managing Memory with Multiple Memory Heaps


Debugging Problems with Heap Memory


-qheapdebug Compiler Option
_debug_calloc - Allocate and Initialize Memory
_debug_free - Free Allocated Memory
_debug_heapmin - Free Unused Memory in the Default Heap
_debug_malloc - Allocate Memory
_debug_memcpy - Copy Bytes
_debug_memmove - Copy Bytes
_debug_realloc - Reallocate Memory Block
_debug_strcat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strcpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strncat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strncpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strnset - Set Characters in String
_debug_strset - Set Characters in String
_debug_ucalloc - Reserve and Initialize Memory from User Heap
_debug_uheapmin - Free Unused Memory in User Heap
_debug_umalloc - Reserve Memory Block from User Heap

m kꚕ$y:7(:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rudbgrea.htmifm$ _debug_realloc

_debug_realloc - Reallocate Memory Block

Format

#include <stdlib.h>  /* also in <malloc.h> */
void *_debug_realloc(void *ptr, size_t size,
                     const char *file, size_t line);

Language Level: Extension

_debug_realloc is the debug version of realloc. Like realloc, it reallocates the block of memory pointed to by ptr to a new size, specified in bytes. It also sets any new memory it allocates to 0xAA, so you can easily locate instances where your program tries to use the data in that memory without initializing it first.

In addition, _debug_realloc makes an implicit call to _heap_check, and stores the file name file and the line number line where the storage is reallocated. This information can be used later by the _heap_check, _dump_allocated, or _dump_allocated_delta functions.

If ptr is NULL, _debug_realloc behaves like _debug_malloc (or malloc) and allocates the block of memory.

To use _debug_realloc, you must compile with the debug memory -qheapdebug compiler option. This option maps all realloc calls to _debug_realloc.

Note: The -qheapdebug option maps all calls to memory management functions (including heap-specific versions) to their debug counterparts. To prevent a call from being mapped, parenthesize the function name.

Because _debug_realloc always checks what heap the memory was allocated from, you can use _debug_realloc to reallocate memory blocks allocated by the regular or debug versions of the memory management functions. However, if the memory was not allocated by the memory management functions, or was previously freed, _debug_realloc generates an error message and the program ends.

Return Value
_debug_realloc returns a pointer to the reallocated memory block. The ptr argument to _debug_realloc is not the same as the return value; _debug_realloc always changes the memory location to help you locate references to the memory that were not freed before the memory was reallocated.

If size is 0, _debug_realloc returns NULL. If not enough memory is available to expand the block to the given size, the original block is unchanged and NULL is returned.

Example
This example uses _debug_realloc to allocate 100 bytes of storage. It then attempts to write to storage that was not allocated. When _debug_realloc is called again, _heap_check detects the error, generates several messages, and stops the program.

Note: You must compile this example with the -qheapdebug option to map the realloc calls to _debug_realloc.

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
   char *ptr;
   if (NULL == (ptr = (char*)realloc(NULL, 100))) {
      puts("Could not allocate memory block.");
      exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
   }
   memset(ptr, 'a', 105);     /* overwrites storage that was not allocated    */
   ptr = (char*)realloc(ptr, 200);        /*  realloc invokes _heap_check     */
   puts("_debug_realloc did not detect that a memory block was overwritten." );
   return 0;
   /****************************************************************************
      The output should be similar to:
      End of allocated object 0x00073890 was overwritten at 0x000738f4.
      The first eight bytes of the memory block (in hex) are: 6161616161616161.
      This memory block was (re)allocated at line number 8 in _debug_reall.c.
      Heap state was valid at line 8 of _debug_reall.c.
      Memory error detected at line 13 of _debug_reall.c.
   ****************************************************************************/
}

Debugging Memory Heaps
Memory Management Functions
Managing Memory with Multiple Memory Heaps


Debugging Problems with Heap Memory


-qheapdebug Compiler Option
_debug_calloc - Allocate and Initialize Memory
_debug_free - Free Allocated Memory
_debug_heapmin - Free Unused Memory in the Default Heap
_debug_malloc - Allocate Memory
_debug_memcpy - Copy Bytes
_debug_memmove - Copy Bytes
_debug_memset - Set Bytes to Value
_debug_strcat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strcpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strncat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strncpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strnset - Set Characters in String
_debug_strset - Set Characters in String
_debug_ucalloc - Reserve and Initialize Memory from User Heap
_debug_uheapmin - Free Unused Memory in User Heap
_debug_umalloc - Reserve Memory Block from User Heap
-qheapdebug

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_debug_strcpy - Copy Strings

Format

#include <string.h>
char *_debug_strcpy(char *string1, const char *string2,
                    const char *file, size_t line);

Language Level: Extension

_debug_strcpy is the debug version of strcpy. Like strcpy, it copies string2, including the ending null character, to the location specified by string1.

_debug_strcpy validates the heap after copying the string to the target location, and performs this check only when the target is within a heap. _debug_strcpy makes an implicit call to _heap_check. If _debug_strcpy detects a corrupted heap when it makes a call to _heap_check, _debug_strcpy will report the file name file and line number line in a message.

Note: _debug_strcpy checks only the current default heap. Therefore, this debug support will not check all heaps within applications that have multiple user heaps.

To use _debug_strcpy, you must compile with the debug memory -qheapdebug compiler option. This option maps all strcpy calls to _debug_strcpy. You do not have to change your source code, in order for _debug_strcpy to verify the heap.

Note: The -qheapdebug option maps all calls to other string functions and all calls to memory management functions (including a heap-specific version), to their debug counterparts. To prevent a call from being mapped, parenthesize the function name.

Return Value
_debug_strcpy returns a pointer to the copied string string1.

Example
This example contains a programming error. The source string is too long for the destination buffer, and the strcpy operation damages the heap.

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#define  SIZE          10
int main(void)
{
   char *source = "1234567890123456789";
   char *destination;
   char *return_string;
   destination = (char*)malloc(SIZE);
   strcpy(destination, "abcdefg"),
   printf("destination is originally = '%s'\n", destination);
   return_string = strcpy(destination, source);
   printf("After strcpy, destination becomes '%s'\n\n", destination);
   return 0;
   /****************************************************************************
      The output should be similar to:
      destination is originally = 'abcdefg'
      End of allocated object 0x00073c80 was overwritten at 0x00073c8a.
      The first eight bytes of the memory block (in hex) are: 3132333435363738.
      This memory block was (re)allocated at line number 13 in strcpy.c.
      Heap state was valid at line 14 of strcpy.c.
      Memory error detected at line 17 of strcpy.c.
   ****************************************************************************/
}

Debugging Memory Heaps
Memory Management Functions
Managing Memory with Multiple Memory Heaps


Debugging Problems with Heap Memory


-qheapdebug Compiler Option
_debug_calloc - Allocate and Initialize Memory
_debug_free - Free Allocated Memory
_debug_heapmin - Free Unused Memory in the Default Heap
_debug_malloc - Allocate Memory
_debug_memcpy - Copy Bytes
_debug_memmove - Copy Bytes
_debug_memset - Set Bytes to Value
_debug_realloc - Reallocate Memory Block
_debug_strcat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strncat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strncpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strnset - Set Characters in String
_debug_strset - Set Characters in String
_debug_ucalloc - Reserve and Initialize Memory from User Heap
_debug_uheapmin - Free Unused Memory in User Heap
_debug_umalloc - Reserve Memory Block from User Heap
-qheapdebug

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_debug_strncat - Concatenate Strings

Format

#include <string.h>
char *_debug_strncat(char *string1, const char *string2, size_t count,
                    const char *file, size_t line);

Language Level: Extension

_debug_strncat is the debug version of strncat. Like strncat, it appends the first count characters of string2 to string1 and ends the resulting string with a null character (\0). If count is greater than the length of string2, the length of string2 is used in place of count.

_debug_strncat validates the heap after appending the characters, and performs this check only when the target is within a heap. _debug_strncat makes an implicit call to _heap_check. If _debug_strncat detects a corrupted heap when it makes a call to _heap_check, _debug_strncat will report the file name file and line number line in a message.

Note: _debug_strncat checks only the current default heap. Therefore, this debug support will not check all heaps within applications that have multiple user heaps.

To use _debug_strncat, you must compile with the debug memory -qheapdebug compiler option. This option maps all strncat calls to _debug_strncat. You do not have to change your source code, in order for _debug_strncat to verify the heap.

Note: The -qheapdebug option maps all calls to other string functions and all calls to memory management functions (including a heap-specific version), to their debug counterparts. To prevent a call from being mapped, parenthesize the function name.

Return Value
_debug_strncat returns a pointer to the joined string string1.

Example
This example contains a programming error. The buffer1 object is not large enough to store the result after eight characters from the string " programming" are concatenated.

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#define  SIZE          10
int main(void)
{
   char *buffer1;
   char *ptr;
   buffer1 = (char*)malloc(SIZE);
   strcpy(buffer1, "computer");
   /* Call strncat with buffer1 and " programming"                            */
   ptr = strncat(buffer1, " programming", 8);
   printf("strncat: buffer1 = \"%s\"\n", buffer1);
   return 0;
   /****************************************************************************
      The output should be similar to:
      End of allocated object 0x00073c80 was overwritten at 0x00073c8a.
      The first eight bytes of the memory block (in hex) are: 636F6D7075746572.
      This memory block was (re)allocated at line number 12 in strncat.c.
      Heap state was valid at line 13 of strncat.c.
      Memory error detected at line 17 of strncat.c.
   ****************************************************************************/
}

Debugging Memory Heaps
Memory Management Functions
Managing Memory with Multiple Memory Heaps


Debugging Problems with Heap Memory


-qheapdebug Compiler Option
_debug_calloc - Allocate and Initialize Memory
_debug_free - Free Allocated Memory
_debug_heapmin - Free Unused Memory in the Default Heap
_debug_malloc - Allocate Memory
_debug_memcpy - Copy Bytes
_debug_memmove - Copy Bytes
_debug_memset - Set Bytes to Value
_debug_realloc - Reallocate Memory Block
_debug_strcat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strcpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strncpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strnset - Set Characters in String
_debug_strset - Set Characters in String
_debug_ucalloc - Reserve and Initialize Memory from User Heap
_debug_uheapmin - Free Unused Memory in User Heap
_debug_umalloc - Reserve Memory Block from User Heap
-qheapdebug

nctio k\$Oy:7(:#O./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rudbgsny.htmifm$ _debug_strncpy

_debug_strncpy - Copy Strings

Format

#include <string.h>
char *_debug_strncpy(char *string1, const char *string2, size_t count,
                    const char *file, size_t line);

Language Level: Extension

_debug_strncpy is the debug version of strncpy. Like strncpy, it copies count characters of string2 to string1. If count is less than or equal to the length of string2, a null character (\0) is not appended to the copied string. If count is greater than the length of string2, the string1 result is padded with null characters (\0) up to length count.

_debug_strncpy validates the heap after copying the strings to the target location, and performs this check only when the target is within a heap. _debug_strncpy makes an implicit call to _heap_check. If _debug_strncpy detects a corrupted heap when it makes a call to _heap_check, _debug_strncpy will report the file name file and line number line in a message.

Note: _debug_strncpy checks only the current default heap. Therefore, this debug support will not check all heaps within applications that have multiple user heaps.

To use _debug_strncpy, you must compile with the debug memory -qheapdebug compiler option. This option maps all strncpy calls to _debug_strncpy. You do not have to change your source code, in order for _debug_strncpy to verify the heap.

Note: The -qheapdebug option maps all calls to other string functions and all calls to memory management functions (including a heap-specific version), to their debug counterparts. To prevent a call from being mapped, parenthesize the function name.

Return Value
_debug_strncpy returns a pointer to string1.

Example
This example contains a programming error. The source string is too long for the destination buffer, and the strncpy operation damages the heap.

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#define  SIZE          10
int main(void)
{
   char *source = "1234567890123456789";
   char *destination;
   char *return_string;
   int index = 15;
   destination = (char*)malloc(SIZE);
   strcpy(destination, "abcdefg"),
   printf("destination is originally = '%s'\n", destination);
   return_string = strncpy(destination, source, index);
   printf("After strncpy, destination becomes '%s'\n\n", destination);
   return 0;
   /****************************************************************************
      The output should be similar to:
      destination is originally = 'abcdefg'
      End of allocated object 0x00073c80 was overwritten at 0x00073c8a.
      The first eight bytes of the memory block (in hex) are: 3132333435363738.
      This memory block was (re)allocated at line number 14 in strncpy.c.
      Heap state was valid at line 15 of strncpy.c.
      Memory error detected at line 18 of strncpy.c.
   ****************************************************************************/
}

Debugging Memory Heaps
Memory Management Functions
Managing Memory with Multiple Memory Heaps


Debugging Problems with Heap Memory


-qheapdebug Compiler Option
_debug_calloc - Allocate and Initialize Memory
_debug_free - Free Allocated Memory
_debug_heapmin - Free Unused Memory in the Default Heap
_debug_malloc - Allocate Memory
_debug_memcpy - Copy Bytes
_debug_memmove - Copy Bytes
_debug_memset - Set Bytes to Value
_debug_realloc - Reallocate Memory Block
_debug_strcat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strcpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strncat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strnset - Set Characters in String
_debug_strset - Set Characters in String
_debug_ucalloc - Reserve and Initialize Memory from User Heap
_debug_uheapmin - Free Unused Memory in User Heap
_debug_umalloc - Reserve Memory Block from User Heap
-qheapdebug

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_debug_ucalloc - Reserve and Initialize Memory from User Heap

Format

#include <umalloc.h>
void *_debug_ucalloc(Heap_t heap, size_t num, size_t size,
                     const char *file, size_t line);

Language Level: Extension

_debug_ucalloc is the debug version of _ucalloc. Like _ucalloc, it allocates memory from the heap you specify for an array of num elements, each of length size bytes. It then initializes all bits of each element to 0.

In addition, _debug_ucalloc makes an implicit call to _uheap_check, and stores the name of the file file and the line number line where the storage is allocated. This information can be used later by the _uheap_check, _uheap_allocated, or _udump_allocated_delta functions.

To use _debug_ucalloc, you must compile with the debug memory -qheapdebug compiler option. This option maps all _ucalloc calls to _debug_ucalloc.

Note: The -qheapdebug option maps all calls to memory management functions (including heap-specific versions) to their debug counterparts. To prevent a call from being mapped, parenthesize the function name.

_debug_ucalloc works just like _debug_calloc except that you specify the heap to use; _debug_calloc always allocates from the default heap.

If the heap does not have enough memory for the request, _debug_ucalloc calls the getmore_fn that you specified when you created the heap with _ucreate.

To reallocate or free memory allocated with _debug_ucalloc, use the non-heap-specific _debug_realloc and _debug_free. These functions always check what heap the memory was allocated from.

Return Value
_debug_ucalloc returns a pointer to the reserved space. If size or num was specified as zero, or if your getmore_fn cannot provide enough memory, _debug_ucalloc returns NULL. Passing _debug_ucalloc a heap that is not valid results in undefined behavior.

Example
This example creates a user heap and allocates memory from it with _debug_ucalloc. It then attempts to write to memory that was not allocated. When _debug_free is called, _uheap_check detects the error, generates several messages, and stops the program.

Note: You must compile this example with the -qheapdebug option to map the _ucalloc calls to _debug_ucalloc and free to _debug_free.

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <umalloc.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
   Heap_t  myheap;
   char    *ptr;
   /* Use default heap as user heap */
   myheap = _udefault(NULL);
   if (NULL == (ptr = (char*)_ucalloc(myheap, 100, 1))) {
      puts("Cannot allocate memory from user heap.");
      exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
   }
   memset(ptr, 'x', 105);   /* Overwrites storage that was not allocated */
   free(ptr);
   return 0;
   /****************************************************************************
      The output should be similar to :
      End of allocated object 0x00073890 was overwritten at 0x000738f4.
      The first eight bytes of the memory block (in hex) are: 7878787878787878.
      This memory block was (re)allocated at line number 14 in _debug_ucallo.c.
      Heap state was valid at line 14 of _debug_ucallo.c.
      Memory error detected at line 19 of _debug_ucallo.c.
   ****************************************************************************/
}


Debugging Memory Heaps
Memory Management Functions
Managing Memory with Multiple Memory Heaps


Debugging Problems with Heap Memory


-qheapdebug Compiler Option
_debug_calloc - Allocate and Initialize Memory
_debug_free - Free Allocated Memory
_debug_heapmin - Free Unused Memory in the Default Heap
_debug_malloc - Allocate Memory
_debug_memcpy - Copy Bytes
_debug_memmove - Copy Bytes
_debug_memset - Set Bytes to Value
_debug_realloc - Reallocate Memory Block
_debug_strcat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strcpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strncat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strncpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strnset - Set Characters in String
_debug_strset - Set Characters in String
_debug_uheapmin - Free Unused Memory in User Heap
_debug_umalloc - Reserve Memory Block from User Heap
-qheapdebug

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_debug_umalloc - Reserve Memory Blocks from User Heap

Format 

#include <umalloc.h>
void *_debug_umalloc(Heap_t heap, size_t size,
                     const char *file, size_t line);

Language Level: Extension

_debug_umalloc is the debug version of _umalloc. Like _umalloc, it reserves storage space from the heap you specify for a block of size bytes. _debug_umalloc also sets all the memory it allocates to 0xAA, so you can easily locate instances where your program uses the data in the memory without initializing it first.

In addition, _debug_umalloc makes an implicit call to _uheap_check, and stores the name of the file file and the line number line where the storage is allocated. This information can be used later by the _uheap_check, _udump_allocated, or _udump_allocated_delta functions. _debug_umalloc also sets all the memory it allocates to 0xAA; this can help you debug problems where your program uses the data in the memory without initializing it.

_debug_umalloc works just like _debug_malloc except that you specify the heap to use; _debug_malloc always allocates from the default heap.

If the heap does not have enough memory for the request, _debug_umalloc calls the getmore_fn that you specified when you created the heap with _ucreate.

To use _debug_umalloc, you must compile with the debug memory -qheapdebug compiler option. This option maps all _umalloc calls to _debug_umalloc.

Note: The -qheapdebug option maps all calls to memory management functions (including heap-specific versions) to their debug counterparts. To prevent a call from being mapped, parenthesize the function name.

To reallocate or free memory allocated with _debug_umalloc, use the non-heap-specific _debug_realloc and _debug_free. These functions always check what heap the memory was allocated from.

Return Value
_debug_umalloc returns a pointer to the reserved space. If size was specified as zero, or the getmore_fn cannot provide enough memory, _debug_umalloc returns NULL. Passing _debug_umalloc a heap that is not valid results in undefined behavior.

Example
This example creates a heap myheap and uses _debug_umalloc to allocate 100 bytes from it. It then attempts to overwrite storage that was not allocated. The call to _debug_free invokes _uheap_check, which detects the error, generates messages, and ends the program.

Note: You must compile this example with the -qheapdebug option to map _umalloc to _debug_umalloc, and free to _debug_free.

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <umalloc.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
   Heap_t  myheap;
   char    *ptr;
   /* Use default heap as user heap */
   myheap = _udefault(NULL);
   if (NULL == (ptr = (char*)_umalloc(myheap, 100))) {
      puts("Cannot allocate memory from user heap.\n");
      exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
   }
   memset(ptr, 'x', 105);   /* Overwrites storage that was not allocated */
   free(ptr);
   return 0;
   /****************************************************************************
      The output should be similar to :
      End of allocated object 0x00073890 was overwritten at 0x000738f4.
      The first eight bytes of the memory block (in hex) are: 7878787878787878.
      This memory block was (re)allocated at line number 14 in _debug_umallo.c.
      Heap state was valid at line 14 of _debug_umallo.c.
      Memory error detected at line 19 of _debug_umallo.c.
   ****************************************************************************/
}

Debugging Memory Heaps
Memory Management Functions
Managing Memory with Multiple Memory Heaps


Debugging Problems with Heap Memory


-qheapdebug Compiler Option
_debug_calloc - Allocate and Initialize Memory
_debug_free - Free Allocated Memory
_debug_heapmin - Free Unused Memory in the Default Heap
_debug_malloc - Allocate Memory
_debug_memcpy - Copy Bytes
_debug_memmove - Copy Bytes
_debug_memset - Set Bytes to Value
_debug_realloc - Reallocate Memory Block
_debug_strcat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strcpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strncat - Concatenate Strings
_debug_strncpy - Copy Strings
_debug_strnset - Set Characters in String
_debug_strset - Set Characters in String
_debug_ucalloc - Reserve and Initialize Memory from User Heap
_debug_uheapmin - Free Unused Memory in User Heap
-qheapdebug

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Escape Sequences for Non-Printable Characters

Escape Sequence Character Represented
\a Alert (bell, alarm)
\b Backspace
\f Form feed (new page)
\n New-line
\r Carriage return
\t Horizontal tab
\v Vertical tab
\' Single quotation mark
\" Double quotation mark
\? Question mark
\\ Backslash

Constants - Escape Sequences

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_Inline, _inline, __inline

C for AIX provides keywords that you can use to specify functions that you want the compiler to inline:

  • _Inline
  • _inline
  • __inline

For example:

_Inline int catherine(int a);

causes catherine to be inlined, meaning that code is generated for the function, rather than a function call. The inline keywords also implicitly declare the function as static.

Using the inline specifiers with data generates an error.

By default, function inlining is turned off, and functions qualified with inline specifiers are treated simply as static functions. To turn on function inlining, specify either the -qinline or -Q compiler options. If you turn optimization on (/O+), /Oi+ becomes the default.

Recursive functions (functions that call themselves) are inlined for the first occurrence only. The call to the function from within itself is not inlined.

You can also use the -qinline or -Q compiler options to automatically inline all functions smaller than a specified size. For best performance, however, use the inline keywords to choose the functions you want to inline rather than using automatic inlining.

An inline function can be declared and defined simultaneously. If it is declared with one of the inline specifier keywords, it can be declared without a definition. The following code fragment shows an inline function definition. Note that the definition includes both the declaration and body of the inline function.

_inline int add(int i, int j) { return i + j; }

Note: The use of the inline specifier does not change the meaning of the function, but inline expansion of a function may not preserve the order of evaluation of the actual arguments.


Program Optimization with the C for AIX Compiler


Using Inlined Components
Writing Optimized Code


-qinline Compiler Option
-Q Compiler Option

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Implementation Dependency - Arrays and Pointers (F.3.7)

The type of the integer required to hold the maximum size of an array (the type of the sizeof operator, size_t) is unsigned long. (3.3.3.4 and 4.1.1)

For a pointer to be converted to an integral type, the size of integer required is 32 or 64 bits. (3.3.4)

The type of the integer required to hold the difference between two pointers to elements of the same array (ptrdiff_t) is long. (3.3.6 and 4.1.1)

When a pointer is cast to an integer, or an integer is cast to a pointer, the bit patterns are preserved. (3.3.4)


Implementation-Defined Behavior
Implementation Dependencies

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Implementation Dependency - Declarators (F.3.11)

There is no limit to the number of declarators that can modify a structure, union, or arithmetic type. (3.5.4)


Implementation-Defined Behavior
Implementation Dependencies

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Implementation Dependency - Environment (F.3.2)

Program termination and library facilities are not available to a free-standing program. Only a hosted environment is available. (2.1.2.1)

Arguments passed to a C program from the AIX operating system command line can be retrieved as arguments of the function main. (2.1.2.2.1) The first argument passed indicates the number of white-space-separated parameters supplied. The second argument is an array of pointers to these parameters. The third argument is a null-terminated array of pointers to a set of system arguments for the program. The arguments are traditionally named argc, envp[], and argv[], but these names are not mandatory. To access these variables, the main() function of your program must declare them as arguments. The following table summarizes the main() function arguments and their uses.

Name Meaning Purpose
int argc Argument count Contains the number of parameters supplied on the command line. The name with which the program was invoked is the first parameter.
char* argv[ ] Argument vector An array of pointers to character strings. Each character string is a parameter supplied on the command line. Valid pointers are from argv[0] to argv[argc-1]. argv[0] is the command name, and argv[1] contains what was specified as the first argument to the command.
char* envp[ ] Environment pointer An array of pointers to character strings. Each character string is an environment parameter supplied to the program. The array ends at the first null pointer (array element with a value of zero).

An asynchronous terminal and a paired display and keyboard are the valid interactive devices. (2.1.2.3)


Implementation-Defined Behavior
Implementation Dependencies

nc kl $z:7(:##./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruimpflt.htmifm$ Floating Point Types (F.3.6)

Implementation Dependency - Floating Point Types (F.3.6)

The scaled value of a floating-point constant that is in the range of the representable value for its type is controlled at compile time by the -y compiler option, and conforms to the IEEE standard for binary floating-point arithmetic. (3.1.3.1)

The following table shows the storage occupied and the range of various floating-point types (3.1.2.5):

Type

Size (bits)

Range of base 10 Exponents

Range of Decimal Values
(in float.h)

Precision (decimal digits)

float

32

-37 to 38

1.175494351E-38 to 3.402823466E+38

7

double

64

-307 to 308

2.2250738585072014E-308 to 1.7976931348623157E+308

15

long double

64

-307 to 308

2.2250738585072014E-308 to 1.7976931348623157E+308

15

long double
(-qldbl128 option)

128

-307 to 308

2.2250738585072014E-308 to 1.7976931348623157E+308

31

Other floating-point limits are set in the /usr/include/float.h header file, described in "Header Files Overview" in the AIX Version 4 Files Reference.

When an integral value is converted to a floating-point number that cannot exactly represent the original value, the direction of truncation depends on the compile-time rounding mode set by the -y compiler option. (3.2.1.3)

When a floating-point number is converted to a narrower floating-point number, the direction of truncation or rounding depends on the rounding mode set by the -y compiler option. (3.2.1.4)

 

Using 16-byte long doubles (-qldbl128 Option)
The mathematical functions contained in the <math.h> header file, such as cosl, tanl, fmodl, have been updated to work with 16-byte long double floating-point numbers.

The input/output functions in the <stdio.h> header file, such as printf, scanf, vsprintf, have been updated to work with 16-byte long double floating-point numbers.

A new function atold, which converts a string to a long double representation, has been added to the existing string-to-number functions strtod, strtol, and strtoul.

 

Alignment Rules
If the first member of a union or structure is a long double, the aggregate is aligned on a 128-bit boundary. Other aggregates and long double identifiers are aligned on a 32-bit boundary. If -qalign=natural is specified, all long doubles are aligned on a 128-bit boundary, regardless of their placement in a union or structure.

The 2-byte alignment rules remain unchanged. All identifiers and aggregates are aligned on a 16-bit boundary.

For bind-time type checking, a long double has type r16.

There are three floating types: float, double, and long double. The range of values of each type is a subrange of the values of the next type in the list.

When the compiler converts a value of floating type to integral type, the fractional part is discarded. If the value of the integral part is too large to be represented by an integral type, the value is converted to the maximum value of an integral type.

When a long double is demoted to double or float, if the value being converted is in the range of values that can be represented but cannot be represented exactly, the result is either the nearest higher or nearest lower value, depending on the IEEE rounding mode.


Implementation-Defined Behavior
Implementation Dependencies
-y
-qalign
-qldbl128

n="cen kbM $Jz:7(:#%J./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruimpids.htmifm$ Identifiers (F.3.3)

Implementation Dependency - Identifiers (F.3.3)

In an identifier without external linkage, 219 characters beyond 31 (for a total of 250) are significant. (3.1.2)

In an identifier with external linkage, 244 characters beyond 6 (for a total of 250) are significant. (3.1.2)

Case is significant in an identifier with external linkage.


Implementation-Defined Behavior
Implementation Dependencies

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Zsom(Ea˷q%Q3[ø 0q]oxmkmrO8‚EN׆"TdZ;Cm/1vҎ]^×om( DZ@d/ kom(0J8>`@ppf( aqS8Sڹ/h_eO/{_IeSo](aN ђ0am9r{iGh[kY}9h m~b{iGS p8 0G;0 bqSZ8S^yLBRQLDZl A ky֜Je, ay$@88 BO<K Jec*V y| Xc *mt s$2jkmԤaJ@0S0FS,xj*mt s$2jkm`.L+:a'_ZqbDED9UZ?_i8{y'Q3aqS#)D9- r/2,rCid ay$@881 ǥ,(0԰šȀ6aq0MH, aʰa@ kڡ$z:7(:#3./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruimplim.htmifm $ C for AIX Compiler Limits

C for AIX Compiler Limits

The limits for your program might differ from those stated here depending on its complexity.

Language Feature Limit
Nesting levels for included files 255
Significant initial characters in identifiers
No limit (but the linker has a limit of 4095 characters for external names).

Other system limits are set in the /usr/include/sys/limits.h file. The limits.h header file is described in the "Header Files Overview" in the AIX Version 4 Files Reference.


Implementation Dependencies

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Implementation-Defined Behavior

Appendix F and other sections of the American National Standard for Information Systems -- Programming Language C (X3.159-1989) standard designate several C language features as implementation-defined. The ANSI standard for the C language requires that manufacturers document the specifics of these features for their compiler.

This and related pages provide this ANSI-required documentation, and references the relevant sections of the ANSI standard. The references are given in parentheses for each item, for example, (2.1.1.2) .


Implementation Dependencies

b= kP${:7(:#7./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruimpovr.htmifm$ Implementation Dependencies Overview

Implementation Dependencies Overview

The behavior of some features of the C language depends on the particular C compiler used. This and related pages describe these C for AIX implementation-specific dependencies.

Note: Compiling your C for AIX programs with C for AIX
The C for AIX compiler is a stricter compiler than the XL C compiler. See C for AIX and XL C Compatibility, which discusses the issues you should consider if you plan to use your XL C programs with the C for AIX compiler.

 

elds kT$a {:7(:#8a ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruimppre.htmifm$ Preprocessing Directives (F.3.13)

Implementation Dependency - Preprocessing Directives (F.3.13)

The value of a single-character character constant in a constant expression that controls conditional inclusion does not match the value of the same character constant in the execution character set. (3.8.1)

A single-character character constant in a constant expression that controls conditional inclusion can have a negative value. (3.8.1)

The method of locating included source files is described in Directory Search Sequence for Include Files Using Relative Path Names. (3.8.2)

Headers are identified by the directive #include <file_name>, and are stored under /usr/include. (3.8.2)

User-defined include-file names can be specified in double quotation marks ("). (3.8.2)

The mapping between the name specified in the include directive and the external source file name is one to one. Multibyte characters are permitted in the include directive. (3.8.2)

The definitions of the __DATE__ and __TIME__ predefined macros are always defined to the system date and time. (3.8.8)


Implementation-Defined Behavior
Implementation Dependencies
#include Preprocessor Directive

< kV$O{:7(:#9O./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruimpqua.htmifm$ Qualifiers (F.3.10)

Implementation Dependency - Qualifiers (F.3.10)

For access to an object that has a type qualified as volatile, all access is retained. (3.5.5.3) The volatile attribute maintains consistency in memory access to data objects. Volatile objects are read from memory each time their value is needed, and written back to memory each time they are changed. When optimizing the code, the compiler cannot remove any access to a volatile variable. The volatile attribute is useful for objects (such as the system clock) that have values that may be changed in ways unknown to your program.

For example, in the following program fragment,

volatile int i;
i=3;
i=5;
i=6;

all of these statements are kept by the compiler even if the -O option to optimize the code is active. If int i was not defined as volatile, only i=6 would be kept in the optimized code.


Implementation-Defined Behavior
Implementation Dependencies
O, optimize Compiler Option

c k ${:7(:#:./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruimpreg.htmifm$ Registers (F.3.8)

Implementation Dependency - Registers (F.3.8)

Objects in registers declared with the storage class specifier register are treated as int objects. (3.5.1)


Implementation-Defined Behavior
Implementation Dependencies
register
int

by kbx$m{:7(:#;m./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruimpsta.htmifm$ Statements (F.3.12)

Implementation Dependency - Statements (F.3.12)

There is no limit to the number of case values in a switch statement. (3.6.4.2)


Implementation-Defined Behavior
Implementation Dependencies


CCC


TTT


RRR

d  kc$ {:7(:#< ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruimpstr.htmifm$ Structures, Unions, Enumerations, Bit Fields (A.6.3.9) (F.3.9)

Implementation Dependency - Structures, Unions, Enumerations, Bit Fields (A.6.3.9) (F.3.9)

If a union object is accessed using a member of a different type, the result is undefined. (3.3.2.3)

The alignment and padding of structures and unions are subject to the following rules (3.5.2.1):

  • Padding is added to align the structure and union members on their natural boundaries.
  • Padding is added to the end of structures and unions on their natural boundary.
  • The alignment of a structure or union is that of its strictest member.

An unsigned int bit field is equivalent to a plain int bit field. (3.5.2.1)

Bit fields within an int are allocated from low memory to high memory. For example, 0x12345678 is stored with byte 0 containing 0x12, and byte 3 containing 0x78. (3.5.2.1)

The type of an enum bit field is the underlying type of the enumeration.

The maximum bit field length for the compiler is 32 bits. If a series of bit fields does not add up to the size of an int, padding may take place.

Bit fields cannot cross a storage-unit boundary. For example, in the following struct, with bit fields mapped as shown, 

struct S {
    unsigned int bit : 30;
    unsigned int bit : 3;
    unsigned int bit : 8;
}

the 3-bit bit field following the 30-bit bit field would cross a 32-bit word-storage boundary. Because crossing a word boundary is not allowed, the 30 bit field is padded and the 3-bit field starts another word.

The -qalign= option allows you to specify different bit-field alignment rules.

Values of an enumeration type are represented by the integral type signed int. (3.5.2.2)

You can use the -qenum=small compiler option to minimize the size of enumerations to 1, 2, or 4 bytes.


Implementation-Defined Behavior
Implementation Dependencies
-qalign
-qenum

lE k4m$ {:7(:#= ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruimpsyn.htmifm$ Synchronization of Stores and Loads to I/O Space

Synchronization of Stores and Loads to I/O Space

Stores and loads to I/O space must be separated from other store and load operations by synchronization instructions. These synchronization instructions allow the compiler to synchronize the execution of the code block.

The C for AIX compiler provides two built-in functions that you can use to specify the type of synchronization, and where and how it should take place.

For C source programs, the two functions are:

  • extern void __iospace_eieio(void);
  • extern void __iospace_sync(void);

Use the function __iospace_eieio (Enforced In-order Execution for I/O) when you want to synchronize cache-inhibited memory-mapped I/O.

Use the function __iospace_sync (I/O Space Synchronization) when all the multiple dispatch capabilities of the processor must be synchronized.

To use these built-in functions effectively, you should use pointers to volatile to access device registers, and then place either of these built-in functions at the completion of this access section of your code.


Example of Reading and Writing to Mapped-to-I/O Space
Example of Multiple Writes to a Single Register


Implementation Dependencies

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KG@ 8 #K\ IA +\EAlBd"#aQ kꐣ$G{:7(:#EG./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruimpxlt.htmifm $ Translation (F.3.1)

Implementation Dependency - Translation (F.3.1)

Translation is the process of transforming all or part of a source program into a program image that contains all the information needed for the program to run.

Each nonempty sequence of white-space characters in a source program, other than the new-line character, is replaced by one space character. Comments are treated as white space. (2.1.1.2)

If you use the -C compiler option, comments are retained.

Diagnostic messages have the following format (2.1.1.3): 

15cc-nnn (severity) text.

where:

cc Is a two-digit code indicating the compiler component that issued the message:
00 Code-generation or optimization message
01 Compiler services message
05 Front-end text message
06 Front-end error message
nnn Is the message number
severity Is a letter representing the severity level of the message
text Is the message text describing the error

Diagnostic messages have the following severity levels:

Letter Severity Compiler Response
I Informational Compilation continues. The message reports conditions found during compilation.
W Warning Compilation continues. The message reports valid, but possibly unintended, conditions.
E Error Compilation continues and object code is generated. Error conditions exist that the compiler can correct, but the program might not run correctly.
S Severe error Compilation continues, but object code is not generated. Error conditions exist that the compiler cannot correct.
U Unrecoverable error The compiler halts. An internal compiler error has been found. This message should be reported to your IBM service representative.

The translator returns the following status codes for each severity level of diagnostic message:

Message Severity Return Code
Informational, Warning, or Error 0
Severe 1
Unrecoverable 40

The level of diagnostic can be controlled with the following compiler options (2.1.1.3):

halt=severity
flag=severity1:severity2

See Message Severity Levels and Compiler Response for detailed information about C for AIX compiler diagnostic messages.


Implementation-Defined Behavior
Implementation Dependencies
Message Severity Levels and Compiler Response
Compiler Return Codes
-C
-qflag
-qhalt

n lV$'{:7(:#Ga./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruintrin.htmifm$   >t "/Sv [ ."&ˌ S/ispxNc%q.`0rmX.04A8K]q6\`h.H Kns&&٠6t0K@ ;c@,1нnǿN֗e z&&ټ[.d.0ˀȉen. 4j :@䋀.07k29>#vM٢(@Nǿ5@qM ip+d1p4\ۛ.l[Ƌ}d7Nqc5;V͓-R]C݈鎐t\ɍip(tt [YP/q6cYP7'F͒ aZb]ʀ{ʀ<"6l,]sd]-V*ح,N1,K@1.p Njw$M [Lfc R\]ΐح,N1,#fQcBᖫH?<:n2O%D, 1iR_X.K|YaVAm1qh 1iUb([P.A+SLZe`FA Sq8PH?sw:Ab<:^m8<:n2O%DIkBᖫH?<:n2O%MrAƷ ؋툱p.؋[i]ǖTMI$5Ub([P.A+SLZe`FA Sq8PH?sw:Am1qxDl*djn1,#fP$ Uqye@tddj\]ΐح,N1,#fQa XAm1qxDl*%eInŖ r_X`Uqye@td L4XpqũP*A S]n2VA1n28n2XPJ( A֫m Uΐ]ʀ{ʀ<"6lA&,@\2b]ǖTMId!A # ؋툱p.؋[i]ǖTMI$E­S@?e-N2u ZeŸb+5Ze`NA+S5ZW:AsvcYP7'F͒H6A֫m ʀ<"6l@A[i]ǖTMIH6A֫m Uΐ]ʀ{ʀ<"6lA01ip:A֫H?<:n2O%D, kM’r_X.K jn1,DL cZnn28A(!jq PJ(6>8Ub+5Ze`[P`5ZW:Asv+c*&ӌc*$ٲTA5pUvcYP7'F͒X `c+b,C "=b,C:mvcYP7& Ʒ LZeq8(%jq*e1jqe-N2PJ(0VA֫ n1,#fP$ Uqye@td6J Zیc*$$ UH?tlye@tqye@td6J h,DZU ʀ<"6l&,AR_X.K|YaVAm1qh nn28A(!jq PJ(6>8Ub+5Ze`NA+Sj[iZtH?VǖTKMǖTMId  XAm1qxDl*lE{&,F!b]! jn1,DL 4X*e1jq PB([Pl| pqũVkq8n2VAj\]ΐqye@td6J Zیc*$ٲT :mvcYP7& ZW:Asv+c*&ӌc*$ٲTAN ZU ʀ<"6l$:vnŖ:mvcYP7& @ٸUZeAnuZe-VA֫ i1qxDl* MapUvcYP7'F͒X MxVX0uH?<:n2MA&Ӽ*e-N2 7so:e-N2m Uΐ]ǖTMId uH?<:n2O%@lVAm1qh uH?sw:Ab<:^m8<:n2O%DLn ZU ʀ<"6l6"=?3@۰p`Uqye@td fh;vn2A0+e! @UZeuH?sw:Am1qxDl*djn1,#fP$ Uqye@tddj\]ΐح,N1,#fQ7 XAm1qxDl*%eLnŖ:mvcYP7& *e-N2c`WewC Kq8uH?sw:Am1qxDl*djn1,#fP$ Uqye@tddj\]ΐح,N1,#fQkh\2b]ǖTMIdŖA&I|Y`/,%e[i]ǖTMI­SH?!V|7b 57 LZeq8(%jq[P}b'H?k$<*e1jq PB([Pl}n2VKUH?tlye@tqye@td6J \eRn1,#fSb,C܃A&VXlE{vX0uH?<:n2MNn28A dI~n28(!jq PJ(2>A SNA+SH?sw:Am1qxDl*djn1,#fP$ Uqye@tddj\]ΐح,N1,#fQ XAm1qxDl*%eKnŖ:mvcYP7& 4*e-N2 ze-N2j\]ΐح,N1,#fQ-V*qye@td6Jb `pp`Uqye@td X *e-N2 ze-N2j\]ΐqye@td6J Zیc*$ٲT :mvcYP7& ZW:Asv+c*&ӌc*$ٲTA 4.jTیc*$ٲTKA 0AI|YaVAm1qh nn2A$[P[iZtH?VǖTKMǖTMId  XAm1qxDl*lE{& n! jn1,DL *e-N2 HA S=j\]ΐqye@td6J Zیc*$ٲT :mvcYP7& ZW:Asv+c*&ӌc*$ٲTA "ᖫH?<:n2O%C"[rhہVAm1qhl >"@r$P6X{C$q'1Fa8\ ]vl$KsP5qاme" [iZtH?VǖTKMǖTMId uRn1,#fP$ Uqye@tddj\]ΐح,N1,#fQ4H V*qye@td6JD"zdKn[i]ǖTMI e$S?!ӈ6]f)ٲp-ƛ;k- N8PpUH?tlye@tqye@td6J ZU ʀ<"6l@A[i]ǖTMIH6A֫m Uΐ]ʀ{ʀ<"6lE͒ ZU ʀ<"6l m" K[i]ǖTMI %ObɓaO,qZW:Asv+c*&ӌc*$ٲT :b]ǖTMId uH?<:n2M@A[iZtH?VǖTKMǖTMId.lBᖫH?<:n2O%C"[PM¾0+|`P`Uqye@tdٲYd)?6t{mj\ZAu :DfLtLkKC8=ɂKC8bHd Km ɥaY:AY)ƪMϘ1EimCӊqe 4N7:f,ȵ014Dt -H  Dc<Hl\݁Q0Ape2m ʀ<"6l.[YP3,V֩R[iZtVu :KTATHP02MBc.",KYaY:A aN5P( H1EDfLtRBiZY<"6l k$7|:7(:#J7./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruintro.htmifm $ Introducing C for AIX References

Introducing C for AIX References

The panel to the left shows a list of C for AIX reference information areas. These areas give you the detailed technical information you need to use C for AIX, such as specific information about compiler options, compiler and C language specifications, and compiler messages.

Any entry ending with ... expands to a list of related sub-topics. Entries not ending with ... link directly to information content on the chosen topic, which will appear in this panel.

 

 l$j|:7(:#K& ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rulngchr.htmifm$    <>et "/acdinr=ghlopsbm.0;?fu%&Cqvwy#,1:ADFISTk'()*-3589PXY[x{}~!+2467BEJKLRUVWZ\]^jz|GHMNOQ_Is=)s4[l~HP-p./p# `Vw0RsHlCf }L]`y67(IA v!.`G ӂG0f"1ppgLp p9MJ}I !s `z)Kc]¸I lֲ]o$c]E>[\69/h Q@ siը aļNTCd愇'1H.H:<9zSԻ}n&T Dӂ-y.N°0H~;]?:.t.9QTmv./˷d6 O(.=p5YOJ~]j '1H(ўv>]ˢT &H~% *NhcB:h ]= ]>Nc-BA/exPFk,qP0$zhب9XPJ4`Hd!4g*MNoaќ*,TZhh'IRsmsmsBmB9h*a%IsBA ()!AIY"Ji.Ұm]bQ0#eb()!AIh E4@ S@Z&9" `NNhH$9YP k$X |:7(:#MX ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rulngkey.htmifm $ Reserved Keywords

Reserved Keywords

Keywords are identifiers reserved by the C language for special use. You can use them for preprocessor macro names but that is, however, considered poor programming style.

Only the exact character case and spelling of keywords is reserved. For example, auto is reserved, but AUTO is not.

Keywords reserved by the C programming language are:

auto break case char
const continue default do
double else enum extern
float for goto if
int long register return
short signed sizeof static
struct switch typedef union
unsigned void volatile while

Identifier names should not start with an underscore (_) followed by an uppercase letter, and should not contain two underscores (__) anywhere. The compiler and library use identifiers beginning with single and double underscores for their own purposes.

 

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Extensions to RT C Provided by extended C

The following are part of the ANSI/ISO C definition and are part of the extended language level. They cause no conflict with existing RT C source:

  • #pragma, #elif, and #error preprocessor directives.
  • Ability to form macro literals using #.
  • Macro concatenation using ##.
  • Recursive macro definitions are only expanded once.
  • White space or comment allowed before #.
  • Trigraph sequences.
  • Redeclaration of typedef names (variable defined as a typedef can be redeclared as an identifier).
  • const and volatile type qualifiers.
  • Support of the signed keyword with char, int, short, and long data types.
  • Suffixes l and L for type long double floating-point constants.
  • Suffixes u and U for types unsigned char and unsigned int.
  • Hexadecimal constants of the form \0xdd.
  • Unary + operator.
  • enum and void types.
  • Function prototypes (including variable number of arguments specified by an ellipsis (...)).
  • Initialization of auto aggregate variables.

C Language Levels


Conflicts Between extended C and Other Levels
Exceptions to ansi C Addressed by classic C
saal2 C Deviations from SAA Level 2 C
Arithmetic Conversions for extended Level C
Summary of C Language Level Conflicts

 k$$ |:7(:#Z ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rulvlsaa.htmifm$ saal2 C Deviations from SAA Level 2 C

saal2 C Deviations from SAA Level 2 C

saal2 level C deviates from the SAA C definition as follows:

  • The _Packed attribute for structures and unions is not supported by the C compiler component of C for AIX. The -qalign=packed compiler option provides some of the function of the attribute.
  • Record input/output is not supported by the AIX Version 3.2 operating system, and is not available on the C compiler. SAA Level 2 defines record input/output.
  • AIX Version 3.2 operating system error conditions for the following differ from those of SAA Level 2:
acos asin atan2 the bessel functions (y0, y1, yn)
fmod gamma log log10   pow sqrt

C Language Levels


Conflicts Between extended C and Other Levels
Extensions to RT C Provided by extended C
Exceptions to ansi C Addressed by classic C
Arithmetic Conversions for extended Level C
Summary of C Language Level Conflicts
-qalign

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Message Catalog Errors

Before the compiler can compile your program, the message catalogs must be installed and the environment variables LANG and NLSPATH must be set to a language for which the message catalog has been installed. See Setting Up the C for AIX Compilation Environment for more information about setting these variables.

If you see the following message during compilation, the appropriate message catalog cannot be opened: 

Error occurred while initializing the message system in
file: message_file

where message_file is the name of the message catalog that the compiler cannot open. This message is issued in English only.

You should then verify that the message catalogs and the environment variables are in place and correct. If the message catalog or environment variables are not correct, compilation can continue, but all nondiagnostic messages are suppressed and the following message is issued instead: 

No message text for message_number.

where message_number is the C for AIX internal message number. This message is issued in English only.

To determine message catalogs which are installed on your system, list all of the file names for the catalogs using the following command: 

ls /usr/lib/nls/msg/%L/vac*.cat

where %L is the primary language environment (locale) selected during installation of the AIX Version 4 Operating System. If the AIX system has never been installed on the system before, the default locale is C. The locale for United States English is en_US. The default message catalogs in /usr/vac/exe/default_msg are called when:

  • The C for AIX compiler cannot find message catalogs for the locale specified by %L.
  • The locale has never been changed from the default, C.

For more information about the NLSPATH and LANG environment variables, see the AIX Version 4 System User's Guide: Operating Systems and Devices.

The AIX national language facilities are described in the "Introducing National Language Support for Programming" in the AIX Version 4 General Programming Concepts.


Setting Up the C for AIX Compilation Environment

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Message Severity Levels and Compiler Response

The following table shows the compiler response associated with each level of message severity.

Letter Severity Compiler Response
I Informational Compilation continues. The message reports conditions found during compilation.
W Warning Compilation continues. The message reports valid, but possibly unintended, conditions.
E Error Compilation continues and object code is generated. Error conditions exist that the compiler can correct, but the program might not run correctly.
S Severe error Compilation continues, but object code is not generated. Error conditions exist that the compiler cannot correct.
U Unrecoverable error The compiler halts. An internal compiler error has been found. This message should be reported to your IBM service representative.

Message and Listing Information
Compiler Message Format


Compiler Return Codes

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#pragma omp barrier Preprocessor Directive

The omp barrier directive identifies a synchronization point at which threads in a parallel region will wait until all other threads in that section reach the same point. Statement execution past the omp barrier point then continues in parallel.

Syntax

#pragma omp barrier

Notes
The omp barrier directive must appear within a block or compound statement. For example:

if (x!=0) {
   #pragma omp barrier    /* valid usage    */
}
if (x!=0)
   #pragma omp barrier    /* invalid usage  */

Program Parallelization
Shared and Private Variables in a Parallel Environment
Countable Loops


Using Pragmas to Control Parallel Processing


#pragma Preprocessor Directives for Parallel Processing
OpenMP Run-time Options for Parallel Processing

g7 k,$ }:7(:#i ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruompcrt.htmifm$ #pragma omp critical Preprocessor Directive

#pragma omp critical Preprocessor Directive

The omp critical directive identifies a section of code that must be executed by a single thread at a time.

Syntax

#pragma omp critical [(name)]
   statement_block

where name can be used to optionally identify the critical region. Identifiers naming a critical region have external linkage.

Notes
The compiler reports an error if you try to branch into or out of a critical section. Some situations that will cause an error are:

  • A critical section that contains the return statement.
  • A critical section that contains goto, continue, or break statements that transfer program flow outside of the critical section.
  • A goto statement outside a critical section that transfers program flow to a label defined within a critical section.

A thread waits at the start of a critical region identified by a given name until no other thread in the program is executing a critical region with that same name. Critical sections not specifically named by the ibm critical or omp critical directives are mapped to the same unspecified name.

Example

/* #pragma ibm critical */
int s, a[100], i; 
#pragma ibm parallel_loop
for (i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
   #pragma ibm critical (lock1)
   s = s + a[i]*i;
}

Program Parallelization
Shared and Private Variables in a Parallel Environment
Countable Loops


Using Pragmas to Control Parallel Processing


#pragma Preprocessor Directives for Parallel Processing
#pragma ibm critical Preprocessor Directive
OpenMP Run-time Options for Parallel Processing

 k-$ }:7(:#j ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruompflu.htmifm$ omp flush

#pragma omp flush Preprocessor Directive

The omp flush directive identifies a point at which the compiler ensures that all threads in a parallel region have the same view of specified objects in memory.

Syntax

#pragma omp flush [ (list) ]

where list is a comma-separated list of variables that will be synchronized.

Notes
If list includes a pointer, the pointer is flushed, not the object being referred to by the pointer. If list is not specified, all shared objects are synchronized except those inaccessible with automatic storage duration.

An flush directive is implied with the following directives:

  • omp barrier
  • Entry to and exit from omp critical.
  • Exit from omp parallel.
  • Exit from omp for.
  • Exit from omp sections.
  • Exit from omp single.

The omp flush directive must appear within a block or compound statement. For example:

if (x!=0) {
   #pragma omp flush    /* valid usage    */
}
if (x!=0)
   #pragma omp flush    /* invalid usage  */

Program Parallelization
Shared and Private Variables in a Parallel Environment
Countable Loops


Using Pragmas to Control Parallel Processing


#pragma Preprocessor Directives for Parallel Processing
OpenMP Run-time Options for Parallel Processing

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#pragma omp master Preprocessor Directive

The omp master directive identifies a section of code that must be run only by the master thread.

Syntax

#pragma omp master
   statement_block

Notes
Threads other than the master thread will not execute the statement block associated with this construct.

No implied barrier exists on either entry to or exit from the master section.


Program Parallelization
Shared and Private Variables in a Parallel Environment
Countable Loops


Using Pragmas to Control Parallel Processing


#pragma Preprocessor Directives for Parallel Processing
OpenMP Run-time Options for Parallel Processing

 k.0$ }:7(:#p ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruompord.htmifm$ #pragma omp ordered Preprocessing Directive

#pragma omp ordered Preprocessor Directive

The omp ordered directive identifies a structured block of code that must be executed in sequential order.

Syntax

#pragma omp ordered
    statement_block

Notes
The omp ordered directive must be used as follows:

  • It must appear within the extent of a omp for or omp parallel for construct containing an ordered clause.
  • It applies to the statement block immediately following it. Statements in that block are executed in the same order in which iterations are executed in a sequential loop.
  • An iteration of a loop must not execute the same omp ordered directive more than once.
  • An iteration of a loop must not execute more than one distinct omp ordered directive.

Program Parallelization
Shared and Private Variables in a Parallel Environment
Countable Loops


Using Pragmas to Control Parallel Processing


#pragma Preprocessor Directives for Parallel Processing
#pragma omp for Preprocessor Directive
OpenMP Run-time Options for Parallel Processing

jɃ k1$ }:7(:#q ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruompplf.htmifm$ #pragma omp parallel for Preprocessor Directive

#pragma omp parallel for Preprocessor Directive

The omp parallel for directive effectively combines the omp parallel and omp for directives. This directive lets you define a parallel region containing a single omp for directive in one step.

Syntax

#pragma omp parallel for [clause[ clause] ...] 
<for_loop>

All clauses and restrictions described in the omp parallel and omp for directives apply to the omp parallel for directive.


Program Parallelization
Shared and Private Variables in a Parallel Environment
Countable Loops


Using Pragmas to Control Parallel Processing


#pragma Preprocessor Directives for Parallel Processing
OpenMP Run-time Options for Parallel Processing
#pragma omp parallel Preprocessor Directive
#pragma omp for Preprocessor Directive

ef="ru k&2$}:7(:#r./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruompplp.htmifm$ #pragma omp parallel Preprocessor Directive

#pragma omp parallel Preprocessor Directive

The omp parallel directive explicitly instructs the compiler to parallelize the chosen segment of code.

When a parallel region is encountered, a logical team of threads is formed. Each thread in the team executes all statements within a parallel region except for work-sharing constructs. Work within work-sharing constructs is distributed among the threads in a team.

Syntax

#pragma omp parallel [clause[ clause] ...] 
<statement_block>

where clause is any of the following:

if (exp) When the if argument is specified, the program code executes in parallel only if the scalar expression represented by exp evaluates to a non-zero value at run-time. Only one if clause can be specified.
private (list) Declares the scope of the data variables in list to be private to each thread. Data variables in list are separated by commas.
firstprivate (list) Declares the scope of the data variables in list to be private to each thread. Each new private object is initialized with the value of the original variable as if there was an implied declaration within the statement block. Data variables in list are separated by commas.
shared (list) Declares the scope of the data variables in list to be shared across all threads. Data variables in list are separated by commas.
copyin (list) For each data variable specified in list, the value of the data variable in the master thread is copied to the thread-private copies at the beginning of the parallel region. Data variables in list are separated by commas.

Each data variable specified in the copyin clause must be a threadprivate variable.
default (shared | none) Defines the default data scope of variables in each thread. Only one default clause can be specified on an omp parallel directive.

Specifying default(shared) is equivalent to stating each variable in a shared(list) clause.

Specifying default(none) requires that each data variable visible to the parallelized statement block must be explcitly listed in a data scope clause, with the exception of those variables that are:

  • const-qualified,
  • specified in an enclosed data scope attribute clause, or,
  • used as a loop control variable referenced only by a corresponding omp for or omp parallel for directive.
reduction (operator: list) Performs a reduction on all scalar variables in list using the specified operator. Reduction variables in list are separated by commas.

A private copy of each variable in list is created for each thread. At the end of the statement block, the final values of all private copies of the reduction variable are combined in a manner appropriate to the operator, and the result is placed back into the original value of the shared reduction variable.

Variables specified in the reduction clause:

  • must be of a type appropriate to the operator.
  • must be shared in the enclosing context.
  • must not be const-qualified.
  • must not have pointer type.

Notes
Loop iterations must be independent before the loop can be parallelized. An implied barrier exists at the end of a parallelized statement block.

Nested parallel regions are always serialized.


Program Parallelization
Shared and Private Variables in a Parallel Environment


Using Pragmas to Control Parallel Processing


#pragma Preprocessor Directives for Parallel Processing
OpenMP Run-time Options for Parallel Processing
#pragma omp parallel sections Preprocessor Directive

iable  k3$ }:7(:#t ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruomppls.htmifm$ #pragma omp parallel sections Preprocessor Directive

#pragma omp parallel sections Preprocessor Directive

The omp parallel sections directive effectively combines the omp parallel and omp sections directives. This directive lets you define a parallel region containing a single omp sections directive in one step.

Syntax

#pragma omp parallel sections [clause[ clause] ...] 
   {
     [#pragma omp section]
          statement-block
     [#pragma omp section]
          statement-block
       .
       .
       .
     ]
   }

All clauses and restrictions described in the omp parallel and omp sections directives apply to the omp parallel sections directive.


Program Parallelization
Shared and Private Variables in a Parallel Environment
Countable Loops


Using Pragmas to Control Parallel Processing


#pragma Preprocessor Directives for Parallel Processing
OpenMP Run-time Options for Parallel Processing
#pragma omp parallel Preprocessor Directive
#pragma omp sections Preprocessor Directive

ma k4$~:7(:#u./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruomprun.htmifm$ OpenMP Run-time Options for Parallel Processing

OpenMP Run-time Options for Parallel Processing

OpenMP run-time time options affecting parallel processing are specified in a set of OMP environment variables. These environment variables, which must be set before you run an application, use syntax of form:

env_variable=option_and_args

Parallelization run-time options can also be specified by the XLSMPOPTS environment variable. When OMP and XLSMPOPTS run-time options conflict, OMP options will prevail.

OpenMP run-time options fall into different categories as described below.

Scheduling Algorithm Environment Variable 
OMP_SCHEDULE=algorithm
 This option specifies the scheduling algorithm used for loops not explictly assigned a scheduling alogorithm with the omp schedule directive. For example:
OMP_SCHEDULE="guided, 4"

Valid options for algorithm are:

  • dynamic[, n]
  • guided[, n]
  • runtime
  • static[, n]

If specified, the value of n must be an integer value of 1 or greater.

The default is scheduling algorithm is static.

See #pragma omp for Preprocessor Directive for a description of these algorithms.

   
Parallel Environment Environment Variables 
OMP_NUM_THREADS=num
 num represents the number of parallel threads requested, which is usually equivalent to the number of processors available on the system.

This number can be overridden during program execution by calling the omp_set_num_threads( ) runtime library function.

Some applications cannot use more threads than the maximum number of processors available. Other applications can experience significant performance improvements if they use more threads than there are processors. This option gives you full control over the number of user threads used to run your program.

The default value for num is the number of processors available on the system.

 
OMP_NESTED=TRUE|FALSE
 This environment variable enables or disables nested parallelism. The setting of this environment variable can be overrridden by calling the omp_set_nested( ) runtime library function.

If nested parallelism is disabled, nested parallel regions are serialized and run in the current thread.

In the current implementation, nested parallel regions are always serialized. As a result, OMP_SET_NESTED does not have any effect, and omp_get_nested() always returns 0. If -qsmp=nested_par option is on (only in non-strict OMP mode), nested parallel regions may employ additional threads as available. However, no new team will be created to run nested parallel regions.

The default value for OMP_NESTED is FALSE.
   
Dynamic Profiling Environment Variable 
OMP_DYNAMIC=TRUE|FALSE
 This environment variable enables or disables dynamic adjustment of the number of threads available for running parallel regions.

If set to TRUE, the number of threads available for executing parallel regions may be adjusted at runtime to make the best use of system resources. See the description for profilefreq=num in IBM Run-time Options for Parallel Processing for more information.

If set to FALSE, dynamic adjustment is disabled.

The default setting is TRUE.
Note: You must use thread-safe compiler mode invocations when compiling parallelized program code.

Program Parallelization
Shared and Private Variables in a Parallel Environment
Compiler Modes


Invoking the Compiler


#pragma Preprocessor Directives for Parallel Processing
IBM Run-time Options for Parallel Processing
#pragma ibm schedule Preprocessor Directive
Built-in Functions Used for Parallel Processing
-qsmp

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#pragma omp single Preprocessor Directive

The omp single directive identifies a section of code that must be run by a single available thread.

Syntax

#pragma omp single [clause[ clause] ...] 
   statement_block

where clause is any of the following:

private (list) Declares the scope of the data variables in list to be private to each thread. Data variables in list are separated by commas.
firstprivate (list) Declares the scope of the data variables in list to be private to each thread. Each new private object is initialized as if there was an implied declaration within the statement block. Data variables in list are separated by commas.
nowait Use this clause to avoid the implied barrier at the end of the single directive. Only one nowait clause can appear on a given single directive.

Notes
An implied barrier exists at the end of a parallelized statement block unless the nowait clause is specified.


Program Parallelization
Shared and Private Variables in a Parallel Environment


Using Pragmas to Control Parallel Processing


#pragma Preprocessor Directives for Parallel Processing
OpenMP Run-time Options for Parallel Processing

- k7$~:7(:#z./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruompthd.htmifm$ #pragma omp threadprivate Preprocessor Directive

#pragma omp threadprivate Preprocessor Directive

The omp threadprivate directive defines the scope of selected file-scope data variables as being private to a thread, but file-scope visible within that thread.

Syntax

#pragma omp threadprivate (list)

where list is a comma-separated list of variables.

Notes
Each copy of an omp threadprivate data variable is initialized once prior to first use of that copy. If an object is changed before being used to initialize a threadprivate data variable, behavior is unspecified.

A thread must not reference another thread's copy of an omp threadprivate data variable. References will always be to the master thread's copy of the data variable when executing serial and master regions of the program.

Use of the omp threadprivate directive is governed by the following points:

  • An omp threadprivate directive must appear at file scope outside of any definition or declaration.
  • A data variable must be declared with file scope prior to inclusion in an omp threadprivate directive list.
  • An omp threadprivate directive and its list must lexically precede any reference to a data variable found in that list.
  • A data variable specified in an omp threadprivate directive in one translation unit must also be specified as such in all other translation units in which it is declared.
  • Data variables specified in an omp threadprivate list must not appear in any clause other than the copyin, schedule, and if clauses.
  • The address of a data variable in an omp threadprivate list is not an address constant.
  • A data variable specified in an omp threadprivate list must not have an incomplete or reference type.

Program Parallelization
Shared and Private Variables in a Parallel Environment
Countable Loops


Using Pragmas to Control Parallel Processing


#pragma Preprocessor Directives for Parallel Processing
OpenMP Run-time Options for Parallel Processing

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aggrcopy

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption See notes. -

Syntax 

    -qaggrcopy=overlap | -qaggrcopy=nooverlap

Purpose
Enables destructive copy operations for structures and unions.

Notes
If the -qaggrcopy=nooverlap compiler option is enabled, the compiler assumes that the source and destination for structure and union assignments do not overlap. This assumption lets the compiler generate faster code.

Default Setting
The default setting of this option is -qaggrcopy=nooverlap when compiling to the ANSI, SAA and SAAL2 language levels.

The default setting of this option is -qaggrcopy=overlap when compiling to the EXTENDED and CLASSIC language levels.

Programs that do not comply to the ANSI C standard as it pertains to non-overlap of source and destination assignment may need to be compiled with the -qaggrcopy=overlap compiler option.

Example

xlc myprogram.c -qaggrcopy=nooverlap

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Define the Compiler Object Code Produced

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D`R-ڒ,eJ9d@MJ ua#`vbLeJMڨ܋~"s=0*2[ _`sX4F(3]a`n\<}-?`4Ex?7,\`"s%5U:PfXB[[ǕOE9i܋~ uA>˛^+#DksXȷTN`xA-ծ1sh0;c< "ݩ"TLT<bLTܠ(A5V`YQua`>+#D`-&grؤ`|YM{;&s׳ȱVP\;HQs&2&@l)|#mcX ȱ7}ߵ8 9k#ߵ``Y_xߵs~9+-/m|xҩՅ[$XʔsɊv5X\j|5ƽKMyI*9dtEG7c*Rn6P xHjH(H pQs&2&Ky[`rEREG1̐H](M; RcӝC^Nt (MG7lP V@2RjʤdM[njQN+xР D-"ܔs䣛6N%nk2.B@m-6N%nk2.BCniQnJ9rQ#[njRF%nk2.Bl5xu$bV"()" 9dksX=>HĭcE(PREs[oܔs z}ԑ[njPQ#[njRF%nk2.BQ#[njRF%nk2.B-"ܔs䣛6F5JHĭcE(Pl5xu$bV"( HBorQoHĭcE(PHBo@T*ԐQʄ >+eB!chS uM"I%^L@ȑks޶eBkU>@TjwD2TM"IQ#5|$1"Ma6~b" 9-G2Eu(9$X9P(HH!GǨ=e!IiL!@HH!"+Ж4B0!$UH@jdMi k(<$ ~:7(:# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptans.htmifm $ ansialias

ansialias

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption ansialias* ANSIALIAS

Syntax

    -qansialias | -qnoansialias 
    ANSIALIAS | NOANSIALIAS

Purpose
Specifies whether type-based aliasing is to be used during optimization. Type-based aliasing restricts the lvalues that can be used to access a data object safely.

Notes
This option is obsolete. Use -qalias= in your new applications.

This option has no effect unless you also specify the -O option.

* The default with xlc and c89 is ansialias. The optimizer assumes that pointers can only point to an object of the same type.

The default with cc is noansialias.

If you select noansialias, the optimizer makes worst-case aliasing assumptions. It assumes that a pointer of a given type can point to an external object or any object whose address is already taken, regardless of type.

The following are not subject to type-based aliasing:

  • Signed and unsigned types; for example, a pointer to a signed int can point to an unsigned int.
  • Character pointer types can point to any type.
  • Types qualified as volatile or const; for example, a pointer to a const int can point to an int.

Example
To specify worst-case aliasing assumptions when compiling myprogram.c, enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -O -qnoansialias

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Define the Compiler Object Code Produced
-O
-qalias

 k=$q~:7(:#q./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptarc.htmifm$ arch

arch

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption arch=com -

Syntax 

    -qarch=suboption

Purpose
Specifies the general processor architecture for which the code (instructions) should be generated.

Notes
If you want maximum performance on a specific architecture and will not be using the program on other architectures, use the appropriate processor architecture option. You can specify the architecture using the following basic suboptions:

auto Automatically detects the specific architecture of the compiling machine. Use this suboption only if the execution environment is the same as the compilation environment.
com Produces object code that contains instructions that will run on all the POWER, POWER2*, and PowerPC* hardware platforms (that is, the instructions generated are common to all platforms. Using -qarch=com is referred to as compiling in common mode) Defines the _ARCH_COM macro.

Use this option if you want your program to be portable.

pwr Produces object code that contains instructions that will run on any of the POWER and POWER2 hardware platforms. Defines the _ARCH_PWR macro.
pwr2 Produces object code that contains instructions that will run on the POWER2 hardware platforms. Defines the _ARCH_PWR and _ARCH_PWR2 macros.
pwrx Produces object code that contains instructions that will run on the POWER2 hardware platforms (same as -qarch=pwr2). Defines the _ARCH_PWR and _ARCH_PWR2 macros.
ppc Produces object code that contains instructions that will run on any of the 32-bit PowerPC hardware platforms. This suboption will cause the compiler to produce single-precision instructions to be used with single-precision data. Defines the _ARCH_PPC macro.
ppcgr Produces object code that contains optional graphics instructions for PowerPC processors. Defines the _ARCH_PPC and _ARCH_PPCGR macros.
noauto Valid only when the -O4 compiler option is in effect, this option disables automatic setting of the -qarch and qtune compiler options.

Additional -qarch suboptions for specific processors can be found in Acceptable Compiler Mode and Processor Architecture Combinations.

You can use -qarch=suboption with -qtune=suboption. -qarch=suboption specifies the architecture for which the instructions are to be generated, and -qtune=suboption specifies the target platform for which the code is optimized.

Default
The default setting of the -qarch option depends on the setting of the -qtune option.

If -qtune is specified without -qarch, the compiler uses -qarch=com.

If -qarch is specified without -qtune, the compiler uses the default tuning option for the specified architecture. Listings will show only:

    TUNE=DEFAULT

To find the actual default -qtune setting for a given -qarch setting, refer to Acceptable Compiler Mode and Processor Architecture Combinations.

Example
To specify that the executable program testing compiled from myprogram.c is to run on a computer with a 32-bit PowerPC architecture, enter:

xlc -o testing myprogram.c -qarch=ppc


Specifying Compiler Options for Architecture-Specific, 32- or 64-bit Compilation


Acceptable Compiler Mode and Processor Architecture Combinations
List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Define the Compiler Object Code Produced
-O4
-qtune

t conta kB>$ ~:7):# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptass.htmifm$ assert

assert

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption noassert -

Syntax

    -qassert=suboption

Purpose
Requests the compiler to apply aliasing assertions to your compilation unit. The compiler will take advantage of the aliasing assertions to improve optimizations where possible.

Notes
This option is obsolete. Use -qalias= in your new applications.

The compiler will apply aliasing assertions when you specify the following suboptions:

-qASSert=TYPeptr Pointers to different types are never aliased. In other words, in the compilation unit no two pointers of different types will point to the same storage location.
-qASSert=ALLPtrs Pointers are never aliased (this implies -qassert=typeptr). Therefore, in the compilation unit, no two pointers will point to the same storage location.
-qASSert=ADDRtaken Variables are disjoint from pointers unless their address is taken. Any class of variable for which an address has not been recorded in the compilation unit will be considered disjoint from indirect access through pointers.

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Specify Compiler Characteristics
-qalias

 k?$ ~:7):# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptatt.htmifm$ attr

attr

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption noattr ATTR

Syntax 

    -qattr | -qattr=full | -qnoattr 
    ATTR | ATTR=FULL | NOATTR

Purpose

Produces a compiler listing that includes an attribute listing for all identifiers.

Notes

-qattr=full Reports all identifiers in the program.
-qattr Reports only those identifiers that are used.

This option does not produce a cross-reference listing unless you also specify -qxref.

The -qnoprint option overrides this option.

If -qattr is specified after -qattr=full, it has no effect. The full listing is produced.

Example
To compile the program myprogram.c and produce a compiler listing of all identifiers, enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -qxref -qattr=full

A typical cross-reference listing has the form:


List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Specify Compiler Output
-qnoprint
-qxref

s kBa@$:7):#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptbit.htmifm$ bitfields

bitfields

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption unsigned -

Syntax

    -qbitfields=suboption

Purpose
Specifies if bitfields are signed. By default, bitfields are unsigned.

Notes
The -qbitfields suboptions are:

signed Bitfields are signed.
unsigned Bitfields are unsigned.

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults

> k?A$ :7):# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptbrt.htmifm$ brtl

brtl

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-flag - -

Syntax

    -brtl

Purpose
Tells the linkage editor to perform library searches of both .a and .so library files.

Notes
This option affects all library searches.

For a library name and path specied by the -l and -L options, the linkage editor searches, if they exist, the .so library first and then the .a library.

Example
To compile myprogram.c searching both shared and static versions of the C for AIX compiler libraries, enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -brtl

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Specify Linkage Options
-qstatic, -qdynamic
-l
-L

 lB$3:7):# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptbst.htmifm$   <>ert "/adgilnops=bchm-.fy%0kuvw#,13FLTx5CO78:Dq()9EMNSV|P4ъbQb Np/B\XlV)pcԍ@HbVJL_XGF_nQF/ZŸSn𤵋p-8ɠ,jWKX qx~nZ@C(KKjWKX qx~nZ@A1QF,R3nSaSǹt]#.Ře:`xa%%7jQ 1LYLwr#.l{8ˏN_<{m\a>0 KC#~+X6'$/Jڙ׼"0j 1tǹt=ˮ+w`L;rǺ=#S_ּ-_HBSu#6^ psT9b?#r_pp-8=N .I,QRUIkO9qǹt=˩h",1 cZq_HEܺ 2$yDwыk/G=˦iDw4beMLwxQǹtbǹt (ܺ&,LɩܺDwы Аi M|A2ԣUF/RZŸS~aSnőb5TbrYFf,¥Ŕ2 p:y0co;=b\`$,%~88áw9l$: g89P1e=BhŔPns and  k}C$ :7):# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptbu.htmifm $ B

B

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-flag - -

Syntax 

    -B | -Bprefix | -B -tprograms | -Bprefix -tprograms

Purpose
Determines substitute path names for the compiler, assembler, linkage editor, and preprocessor.

Notes
The optional prefix defines part of a path name to the new programs. It must end in /.

To form the complete path name for each program, the C for AIX compiler adds prefix to the standard program names for the compiler, assembler, linkage editor and preprocessor.

Use this option if you want to keep multiple levels of some or all of the C for AIX compiler executables and have the option of specifying which one you want to use.

If -Bprefix is not specified, the default path is used.

-B -tprograms specifies the programs to which the -B prefix name is to be appended.

The -Bprefix -tprograms options override the -Fconfig_file option.

Example
To compile myprogram.c using a substitute xlc compiler in /lib/tmp/mine/ enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -B/lib/tmp/mine/

To compile myprogram.c using a substitute linkage editor in /lib/tmp/mine/, enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -B/lib/tmp/mine/ -tl

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Specify Compiler Characteristics
-F
-t

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chars

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption chars=unsigned CHARS=sign_type

Syntax 

    -qchars=signed | -qchars=unsigned 
    CHARS=signed | CHARS=unsigned

Purpose
Instructs the compiler to treat all variables of type char as either signed or unsigned.

Notes
You can also specify sign type in your source program using either of the following preprocessor directives: 

     #pragma options chars=sign_type
     #pragma chars (sign_type)

where sign_type is either signed or unsigned.

The _CHAR_SIGNED or _CHAR_UNSIGNED macros are defined according to the setting of the -qchars option or corresponding preprocessor directives.

Regardless of the setting of this option, the type of char is still considered to be distinct from the types unsigned char and signed char for purposes of type-compatibility checking.

Example
To treat all char types as signed when compiling myprogram.c, enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -qchars=signed

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Specify Compiler Characteristics

A\ k G$ :7):# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptcl.htmifm$ c

c

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-flag - -

Syntax 

    -c

Purpose
Instructs the compiler to pass source files to the compiler only.

Notes
The compiled source files are not sent to the linkage editor. The compiler creates an output object file, file_name.o, for each valid source file, file_name.c or file_name.i.

The -c option is overridden if either the -E, -P, or -qsyntaxonly options are specified.

The -c option can be used in combination with the -o option to provide an explicit name of the object file that is created by the compiler.

Example
To compile myprogram.c to produce an object file myfile.o, but no executable file, enter the command: 

xlc myprogram.c -c

To compile myprogram.c to produce the object file new.o and no executable file, enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -c -o new.o

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Specify Compiler Output
-E
-o
-P
-qsyntaxonly

g sr kHH$Y :7):#Y ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptcom.htmifm$ compact

compact

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption nocompact COMPact

Syntax 

    -qcompact | -qnocompact 
    COMPACT | NOCOMPACT

Purpose
When used with optimization, reduces code size where possible, at the expense of execution speed.

Notes
Code size is reduced by inhibiting optimizations that replicate or expand code inline. Execution time may increase.

Example
To compile myprogram.c to reduce code size, enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -qcompact

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Define the Compiler Object Code Produced
#pragma option_override Preprocessor Directive

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C

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-flag - -

Syntax 

    -C

Purpose
Preserves comments in preprocessed output.

Notes
The -C option has no effect without either the -E or the -P option. With the -E option, comments are written to standard output. With the -P option, comments are written to an output file.

Example
To compile myprogram.c to produce a file myprogram.i that contains the preprocessed program text including comments, enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -P -C

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Specify Compiler Output
-C
-E
-P

¥ k K$ :7):# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptdat.htmifm$ datalocal, dataimported

datalocal, dataimported

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption dataimported DATALOCal, DATAIMPorted

Syntax 

    -qdatalocal | -qdatalocal=names 
    -qdataimported | -qdataimported=names 
    DATALOCAL | DATALOCAL=names 
    DATAIMPORTED | DATAIMPORTED=names

Purpose
Mark data as local or imported.

Notes

Local variables are statically bound with the functions that use them. -qdatalocal changes the default to assume that all variables are local. -qdatalocal=names marks the named variables as local, where names is a list of identifiers separated by colons (:). The default is not changed. Performance may decrease if an imported variable is assumed to be local.

Imported variables are dynamically bound with a shared portion of a library. -qdataimported changes the default to assume that all variables are imported. -qdataimported=names marks the named variables as imported, where names is a list of identifiers separated by colons (:). The default is not changed.

Conflicts among the data-marking options are resolved in the following manner:

Options that list variable names
The last explicit specification for a particular variable name is used.
Options that change the default
This form does not specify a name list. The last option specified is the default for variables not explicitly listed in the name-list form.

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Define the Compiler Object Code Produced

 kL$& :7):#& ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptdbx.htmifm$ dbxextra

dbxextra

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption nodbxextra -

Syntax 

    -qdbxextra | -qnodbxextra

Purpose
Specifies that all typedef declarations, struct, union, and enum type definitions are included for debugger processing.

Notes
Use this option with the -g option to produce additional debugging information.

When you specify the -g option, debugging information is included in the object file. To minimize the size of object and executable files, the compiler only includes information for symbols that are referenced. Debugging information is not produced for unreferenced arrays, pointers, or file-scope variables unless -qdbxextra is specified.

Using -qdbxextra may make your object and executable files larger.

Example
To include all symbols in myprogram.c for debugger processing, enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -g -qdbxextra

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Specify Debugging Features
-g

 k:M$:7):#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptdig.htmifm$ digraph

digraph

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption nodigraph -

Syntax 

    -qdigraph | -qnodigraph

Purpose
Lets you use digraph character sequences to represent characters not found on some keyboards. Digraphs are enabled by default.

Example
To disable digraph character sequences when compiling your program, enter: 

    xlc myprogram.c -qnodigraph

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
C Programming Character Set

>  kN$z:7):#z./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptdol.htmifm$ dollar

dollar

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption nodollar -

Syntax 

    -qdollar | -qnodollar

Purpose
Allows the $ symbol to be used in the names of identifiers.

Example
To compile myprogram.c so that $ is allowed in identifiers in the program, enter: 

    xlc myprogram.c -qdollar

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults

/compi kLO$u :7):#u ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptdpc.htmifm$ dpcl

dpcl

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption nodpcl -

Syntax 

   -qdpcl | -qnodpcl

Purpose
Generates symbols that tools based on the Dynamic Probe Class Library (DPCL) can use to see the structure of an executable file.

Notes
When you specify the -qdpcl option, the compiler emits symbols to define blocks of code in a program. You can then use tools that use the DPCL interface to examine performance information such as memory usage for object files that you have compiled with this option.

You must also specify the -g option when you specify -qdpcl.

You cannot specify the -qipa or -qsmp. options together with -qdpcl.


List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Define the Compiler Object Code Produced

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extchk

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption noextchk EXTCHK

Syntax 

    -qextchk | -qnoextchk 
    EXTCHK | NOEXTCHK

Purpose
Generates bind-time type checking information and checks for compile-time consistency.

Notes
-qextchk checks for consistency at compile time and detects mismatches across compilation units at link time.

-qextchk does not perform type checking on functions or objects that contain references to incomplete types.

Example
To compile myprogram.c so that bind-time checking information is produced, enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -qextchk

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Define the Compiler Object Code Produced

FmԐ kHU$T :7):#T ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptfdp.htmifm$ fdpr

fdpr

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption nofdpr -

Syntax 

    -qfdpr | -qnofdpr

Purpose
Collects information about your program for use with the AIX fdpr (Feedback Directed Program Restructuring) performance-tuning utility.

Notes
You should compile your program with -qfdpr before optimizing it with the fdpr performance-tuning utility. Optmization data is stored in the object file.

For more information on using the fdpr performance-tuning utilty, refer to the AIX Version 4 Commands Reference or enter the command:

man fdpr

Example
To compile myprogram.c so it include data required by the fdpr utility, enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -qfdpr

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Define the Compiler Object Code Produced

 kꌧV$ :7):# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptfl.htmifm$ f

f

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-flag - -

Syntax 

    -f filename

Purpose
Linkage editor (ld command) option only. Passes to the linkage editor the filename of a file containing a list of input files to be processed

Notes
Each line in filename is treated as if it were listed separately on the ld linkage editor command line. Lines in this file can contain the following shell pattern characters to designate multiple object files:

  • * asterisk
  • [ left bracket
  • ] right bracket
  • ? question mark

For more information on the -f compiler option, refer to the ld command in the AIX Commands Reference.


List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Specify Compiler Characteristics

ble>  kRW$.:7):#../usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptfld.htmifm$ fold

fold

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption fold FOLD

Syntax: 

    -qfold | -qnofold 
    FOLD | NOFOLD

Purpose
Specifies that constant floating-point expressions are to be evaluated at compile time.

Notes
This option is obsolete. Use -qfloat=fold in your new applications.


Floating-Point Compiler Options


List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
-qfloat

hr k:X$':7):#'./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptflg.htmifm$ flag

flag

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption flag=i:i FLAG=severity1:severity2

Syntax 

    -qflag=severity1:severity2 
    FLAG=severity1:severity2

Purpose
Specifies the minimum severity level of diagnostic messages to be reported in a listing and displayed on a terminal.

Notes

severity1 Message level reported in listing
severity2 Message level reported on terminal

You must specify a level for both severity1 and severity2.

Diagnostic messages have the following severity levels:

i Informational
w Warning
e Error
s Severe Error
u Unrecoverable Error

Specifying informational messages does not turn on the -qinfo option.

Example
To compile myprogram.c so that the listing shows all messages that were generated and your workstation displays only error and higher messages, enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -qflag=I:E

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Specify Compiler Output
Message Severity Levels and Compiler Response
-qinfo
-qsuppress

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fastcopy

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption See notes. -

Syntax 

    -qfastcopy | -qnofastcopy

Purpose
Enables destructive copy operations for structures and unions.

Notes
If the -qfastcopy compiler option is enabled, the compiler assumes that the source and destination for structure and union assignments do not overlap. This assumption lets the compiler generate faster code.

Default Setting
The default setting of this option is -qfastcopy when compiling to the ANSI. language level. Programs that do not comply to the ANSI C standard as it pertains to non-overlap of source and destination assignment may need to be compiled with the -qnofastcopy compiler option.

For all other language levels the default is -qnofastcopy.

Example

xlc myprogram.c -qfastcopy

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Define the Compiler Object Code Produced

 k"\$:7):#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptfu.htmifm$ F

F

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-flag - -

Syntax 

    -Fconfig_file:stanza | -Fconfig_file | -F:stanza

Purpose
Names an alternative configuration file for xlc.

Notes

config_file Specifies the configuration of your system to the compiler.
stanza Is the name of the command used to invoke the compiler. This directs the compiler to the config_file under stanza for the description of the compiler environment.

This suboption is not required.

The default is a configuration file supplied at installation time called /etc/vac.cfg. Any file names or stanzas that you specify on the command line or within your source file override the defaults specified in the /etc/vac.cfg configuration file.

For information regarding the contents of the configuration file, refer to Specifying Options in the Configuration File.

Options specified with -W option override options in the -Fconfig_file configuration file. The -B, -t, and -W options override the -F option.

Example
To compile myprogram.c using a configuration file /usr/tmp/myvac.cfg with an xlc stanza, enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -F/usr/tmp/myvac.cfg:xlc

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Specify Compiler Characteristics
Default Compiler Configuration File
-B
-t
-W

 kF]$ :7):# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptful.htmifm$ fullpath

fullpath

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption nofullpath -

Syntax 

    -qfullpath | -qnofullpath

Purpose
Specifies what path information is stored for files when you use the -g option.

Notes
Using -qfullpath causes the compiler to preserve the absolute (full) path name of source files specified with the -g option.

The relative path name of files is preserved when you use -qnofullpath.

-qfullpath is useful if the executable file was moved to another directory. If you specified -qnofullpath, the debugger would be unable to find the file. Using -qfullpath would locate the file successfully.


List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Specify Debugging Features
-g

 k"^$ :7):# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptgl.htmifm$ g

g

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-flag - -

Syntax

    -g

Purpose
Generates information used by debugging tools such as the xldb graphical debugger.

Notes
Avoid using this option with -O (optimization) option. The information produced may be incomplete or misleading.

If you specify the -g option, the inlining option defaults to -Q! (no functions are inlined).

The default with -g is not to include information about unreferenced symbols in the debugging information.

To include information about both referenced and unreferenced symbols, use the -qdbxextra option with -g.

To specify that source files used with -g are referred to by either their absolute or their relative path name, use -qfullpath.

You can also use the -qlinedebug option to produce abbreviated debugging information in a smaller object size.

Some symbols which are clearly referenced or set in the source code may be optimized away by IPA, and may be lost to debug, nm, or dump outputs. Using IPA together with the -g compiler will usually result in non-steppable output.

Example
To compile myprogram.c to produce an executable program testing so you can debug it, enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -o testing -g

To compile myprogram.c to produce an executable program testing_all containing additional information about unreferenced symbols so you can debug it, enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -o testing_all -g -qdbxextra

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Specify Debugging Features
-O
-Q
-qdbxextra
-qfullpath
-qipa
-qlinedebug

html>  k_$:7):#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptgpc.htmifm$ genpcomp

genpcomp

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption nogenpcomp -

Syntax 

    -qgenpcomp | -qgenpcomp=directory | -qnogenpcomp

Purpose
Generates a precompiled version of any header file for which the original source file is used. This may help improve compile time when you use the -qusepcomp option.

Notes

-qgenpcomp Generates a precompiled header file called csetc.pch, and saves it to the current directory.
-qgenpcomp=directory Generates a precompiled header file.
  • If directory is the name of an existing directory, the precompiled header file is named csetc.pch and saved to that named directory.
  • If a directory with the name directory does not exist, the precompiled header file is named directory, and is saved to the current directory.
-qnogenpcomp Does not generate precompiled header files.

-qgenpcomp and -qusepcomp will be ignored if they are both specified along with the -a or -ae options. Without the -qusepcomp option, -qgenpcomp is accepted in all cases.

Example
To compile myprogram.c and generate a precompiled header file for any files that have changed since the last compilation, or for any files that do not have precompiled header files, and then place them in the directory /headers, enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -qgenpcomp=/headers

The new precompiled header is called csetc.pch.


Creating and Using Precompiled Header Files


List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
-qusepcomp

W@ k̾`$} :7):#} ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptgpr.htmifm$ genproto

genproto

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption nogenproto -

Syntax 

    -qgenproto | -qgenproto=parmnames | -qnogenproto

Purpose
Produces ANSI prototypes from K&R function definitions. This should help to ease the transition from K&R to ANSI.

Notes
Using -qgenproto without PARMnames will cause prototypes to be generated without parameter names. Parameter names are included in the prototype when PARMnames is specified.

Example
For the following function, foo.c: 

foo(a,b,c)
  float a;
  int *b;

specifying 

xlc -c -qgenproto foo.c

produces

int foo(double, int*, int);

The parameter names are dropped. On the other hand, specifying 

xlc -c -qgenproto=parm foo.c

produces 

int foo(double a, int* b, int c);

In this case the parameter names are kept.

Note that float a is represented as double or double a in the prototype, since ANSI states that all narrow-type arguments (such as chars, shorts, and floats) are widened before they are passed to K&R functions.


List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Specify Compiler Characteristics

 kLJa$:7):#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptgu.htmifm$ G

G

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-flag - -

Syntax
This is a linkage editor (ld) option. Refer to AIX Version 4 Commands Reference for a description of ld command usage and syntax.

Purpose
Tells the linkage editor to create a dynamic library.


List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Define the Compiler Object Code Produced

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halt

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption halt=s HALT=severity

Syntax 

    -qhalt=severity 
    HALT=severity

Purpose
Instructs the compiler to stop after the compilation phase when it encounters errors of specified severity or greater.

Notes
severity is one of:

severity Description
i Information
w Warning
e Error
s Severe error
u Unrecoverable error

When the compiler stops as a result of the -qhalt option, the compiler return code is nonzero.

When -qhalt is specified more than once, the lowest severity level is used.

The -qhalt option can be overridden by the -qmaxerr option.

Diagnostic messages may be controlled by the -qflag option.

Example
To compile myprogram.c so that compilation stops if a warning or higher level message occurs, enter: 

xlc myprogram.c -qhalt=w

List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
Options that Specify Compiler Output
Message Severity Levels and Compiler Response
-qflag
-qmaxerr

"top" kd$ :7):# ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruopthsf.htmifm$ hsflt

hsflt

Option Type Default Value #pragma options
-qoption nohsflt HSFLT

Syntax: 

    -qhsflt | -qnohsflt 
    HSFLT | NOHSFLT

Purpose
Speeds up calculations by removing range checking on single-precision float results, and on conversions from floating point to integer. -qnohsflt specifies that single-precision expressions are rounded after expression evaluation, and that floating-point-to-integer conversions are to be checked for out of range values.

Notes
This option is obsolete. Use -qfloat=hsflt in your new applications.

The hsflt option overrides the -qrndsngl and -qspnans options.

The -qhsflt option is intended for specific applications in which floating-point computations have known characteristics. Using this option when compiling other application programs can produce incorrect results without warning. See Floating-Point Compiler Options before you use the -qhslft option.


Floating-Point Compiler Options


List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults
-qfloat
-qrndsngl
-qspnans

 

ke$5	:7):#5	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruopthss.htmifm$




hssngl


 






    

        
hssngl

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        nohssngl
        HSSNGL
    





Syntax 



    -qhssngl | -qnohssngl 
    HSSNGL | NOHSSNGL 



Purpose

Specifies that single-precision expressions are rounded only
when the results are stored into float memory
locations. nohssngl specifies that
single-precision expressions are rounded after expressione
valuation. Using hssngl can improve run-time
performance.



Notes 

This option is obsolete. Use -qfloat=hssngl
in your new applications.







    

        

        Floating-Point
        Compiler Options


        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        -qfloat

        		
        
   

        		
    










"9"kꢀf$:7):#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptidr.htmifm$




idirfirst


 






    

        
idirfirst

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        noidirfirst
        IDIRFirst
    





Syntax 



    -qidirfirst | -qnoidirfirst 
    IDIRFIRST | NOIDIRFIRST 



Purpose 

Specifies the search order for files included with the #include
"file_name"
directive. 



Notes 

Use -qidirfirst with the -I directory
option. 



The normal search order (for files included with the #include
"file_name"
directive) without the idirfirst option
is: 



    
    
  1. Search the directory where the current source file
        resides. 
    2. 
    
  2. Search the directory or directories specified with the -I
        directory option. 
    3. 
    
  3. Search the standard include directory, /usr/include.
    
    4. 




With -qidirfirst, the directories specified
with the -I directory option are searched before
the directory where the current file resides. 



-qidirfirst has no effect on the search order
for the #include <file_name> directive. 



-qidirfirst is independent of the -qnostdinc
option, which changes the search order for both #include
"file_name" and #include
<file_name>. 



The search order of files is described in Directory Search Sequence
for Include Files Using Relative Path Names. 



The last valid #pragma option [NO]IDIRFirst
remains in effect until replaced by a subsequent #pragma
option [NO]IDIRFirst. 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c and search /usr/tmp/myinclude
for included files before searching the current directory (where
the source file resides), enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -I/usr/tmp/myinclude -qidirfirst









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        -I

        -qnostdinc		
        
   

        		
    










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ignerrno


 






    

        
ignerrno

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        noignerrno
        -
    





Syntax 



    -qignerrno | -qignerrno



Purpose 

Allows the compiler to perform optimizations that assume errno
is not modified by system calls. 



Notes 

Library routines set errno when an exception
occurs. This setting and subsequent side effects of errno
may be ignored by specifying -qignerrno. 







    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Object Code Produced		
        
   

        		
    










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inlglue


 






    

        
inlglue

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        noinlglue
        INLGLUE
    





Syntax 



    -qinlglue | -qnoinlglue 
    INLGLUE | NOINLGLUE 



Purpose 

Generates fast external linkage by inlining the pointer glue
code necessary to make a call to an external function or a call
through a function pointer. 



Notes 

Glue code, generated by the linker, is used for
passing control between two external functions, or when you call
functions through a pointer. Therefore the -qinlglue
option only affects function calls through pointers or calls to
an external compilation unit. For calls to an external function,
you should specify that the function is imported by using, for
example, the -qprocimported option. 



The inlining of glue code can cause the size of code to grow.
This can be overridden by specifying the -qcompact
option, thereby disabling the -qinlglue option. 







    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Linkage
        Options

        -qprocimported

        -qcompact		
        
   

        		
    










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initauto


 






    

        
initauto

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        noinitauto
        INITAuto
    





Syntax 



    -qinitauto=hex_value | -qnoinitauto 
    INITAUTO=hex_value | NOINITAUTO 



Purpose 

Initializes automatic storage to the two-digit hexadecimal
byte value hex_value. The option generates extra code to
initialize the automatic (stack-allocated) storage of functions.
It reduces the runtime performance of the program and should only
be used for debugging. 



Notes 

There is no default setting for the initial value of -qinitauto;
you must set an explicit value (for example, -qinitauto=FA).




Example 

To compile myprogram.c so that automatic stack storage is
initialized to hex value FF (decimal 255), enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qinitauto=FF









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Object Code Produced		
        
   

        		
    










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isolated_call


 






    

        
isolated_call

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        -
        ISOLATED_CALL
    





Syntax 




    
-qisolated_call=function_name
ISOLATED_CALL=function_name 





Purpose 

Specifies functions in the source file that have no side effects.




Notes 




    

        function_name 
        Is the name of a function that does not
        have side effects or does not rely on functions or
        processes that have side effects. 
Side effects
        are any changes in the state of the runtime environment.
        Examples of such changes are accessing a volatile object,
        modifying an external object, modifying a file, or
        calling another function that does any of these things.
        Functions with no side effects cause no changes to
        external and static variables. 

        
function_name can be a list of functions
        separated by colons (:). 

        		
    





Marking a function as isolated can improve the runtime
performance of optimized code by indicating to the optimizer that
external and static variables are not changed by the called
function. 



The #pragma options keyword isolated_call
must be specified at the top of the file, before the first C
statement. You can use the #pragma isolated_call
directive at any point in your source file. 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c, specifying that the functions myfunction(int)
and classfunction(double) do not have side
effects, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qisolated_call=myfunction:classfunction









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        #pragma options Preprocessor
        Directive

        #pragma isolated_call
        Preprocessor Directive		
        
   

        		
    










@pp+ko$:7):#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptiu.htmifm$




I


 






    

        
I

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -flag
        -
        -
    





Syntax



    -Idirectory 



Purpose 

Specifies an additional search path if the file name in the #include
directive is not specified using its absolute path name. 



Notes 

The value for directory must be a valid path name (for
example, /u/golnaz, or /tmp, or
./subdir). The compiler appends a slash (/)
to the directory and then concatenates it with the file name
before doing the search. The path directory is the one that the
compiler searches first for #include files whose
names do not start with a slash (/). If
directory is not specified, the default is to search the standard
directories. 



The normal search order is: 



    
    
  1. Search the directory where the current source file
        resides. 
    2. 
    
  2. Search the directory or directories specified with the -I
        directory option. 
    3. 
    
  3. Search the standard include directory, /usr/include.
    
    4. 




If the -I directory option is specified both
in the configuration file and on the command line, the paths
specified in the configuration file are searched first. 



When all specified directories have been searched, the
directories on the standard list for #include
files are searched. The directories on the standard list differ
for the two versions of the #include directive.
See Directory Search
Sequence for Include Files Using Relative Path Names for more
information about searching directories. 



The -I directory option can be specified more
than once on the command line. If you specify more than one -I
option, directories are searched in the order that they appear on
the command line. 



If you specify a full (absolute) path name on the #include
directive, this option has no effect. 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c and search /usr/tmp and
then /oldstuff/history for included files,
enter: 



    xlc myprogram.c -I/usr/tmp -I/oldstuff/history







    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        idirfirst Compiler
        Option		
        
   

        		
    










HkbJp$:7):#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptlan.htmifm$




libansi


 






    

        
libansi

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        nolibansi
        -
    





Syntax 



    -qlibansi | -qnolibansi 



Purpose 

Assumes that all functions with the name of an ANSI C library
function are in fact the system functions. 



Notes 

This will allow the optimizer to generate better code because it
will know about the behavior of a given function, such as whether
or not it has any side effects. 







    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults		
        
   

        		
    










ek¤q$:7):#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptlcc.htmifm$




Options that Specify Compiler Characteristics


 






    

        
Options
        that Specify Compiler Characteristics

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        To:
        See:
    

    

        Specify the language level
        langlvl
    

    

        Specify a different configuration file
        or stanza
        F
    

    

        Specify path names to other program
        names
        B
    

    

        Specify program options
        W
    

    

        Specify a search path
        I
    

    

        Specify if char
        variables are treated as signed or unsigned
        chars
    

    

        Specify the use of multibyte characters
        mbcs, dbcs
    

    

        Change the length of tabs in your source
        file
        tabsize
    

    

        Produce ANSI prototypes from K&R
        function definitions
        genproto
    

    

        Specify aliasing assertions
        alias

        assert		
    









    

        

        Invoking the C for
        AIX Compiler 

        Specifying Compiler
        Options on the Command Line

        Specifying Compiler
        Options in Your Source Program

        Specifying Compiler
        Options in a Configuration File


        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Debugging
        Features

        Options that Specify
        Preprocessor Options

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Output

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Object Code Produced

        Options that Specify Linkage
        Options

        		
        
   

        		
    










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linedebug


 






    

        
linedebug

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        nolinedebug
        -
    





Syntax



    -qLINEDebug | -qNOLINEDebug



Purpose

Generates line number and source file name information
for the debugger. 



Notes

This option produces minimal debugging information, so the
resulting object size is smaller than that produced if the -g
debugging option is specified. You can use the debugger to step
through the source code, but you will not be able to see or query
variable information. The traceback table, if generated, will
include line numbers.



Avoid using this option with -O
(optimization) option. The information produced may be incomplete
or misleading.



If you specify the -qlinedebug option, the
inlining option defaults to -Q! (no functions
are inlined). 



The -g option overrides the -qlinedebug
option. If you specify -g -qnolinedebug
on the command line, -qnolinedebug is ignored
and the following warning is issued:



1506-... (W) Option -qnolinedebug is incompatible with option -g and is ignored.



Example

To compile myprogram.c to produce an executable program
testing so you can step through it with a debugger,
enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -o testing -qlinedebug









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Debugging
        Features

        -g

        -O

        -Q		
        
   

        		
    











   k:v$:7):#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptlis.htmifm$




list


 






    

        
list

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        nolist
        LIST
    





Syntax 



    -qlist | -qnolist 
    LIST | NOLIST 



Purpose 

Produces a compiler listing that includes an object listing.




Notes 

Options that are not defaults appear in all listings, even
if nolist is specified. The noprint
option overrides this option. 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c to produce an object listing enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qlist









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Output		
        
   

        		
    










k(w$3:7):#3./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptll.htmifm$




l


 






    

        
l

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -flag
        See
        below.
        -
    





Syntax 



    -lkey 



Purpose 

Searches the specified library file, libkey.so, and then
libkey.a for dynamic linking, or just libkey.a
for static linking. 



Notes 

The actual search path can be modified with the -Ldirectory
option. See -B, -brtl, and -bstatic,-bdynamic
for information on specifying the types of libraries
that are searched (for static or dynamic linking). 



Default 

The default is to search only the C library (-lc).




Example 

To compile myprogram.c and include the Task Library, libtask.a,
and the Complex Mathematics Library, libcomplex.a,
enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -ltask -lcomplex









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Linkage
        Options

        -B

        -brtl

        -bstatic, bdynamic

        -L

        -l		
        
   

        		
    










br>
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longlong


 






    

        
longlong

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        longlong*
        -
    





Syntax 



   -qlonglong | -qnolonglong 



Purpose 

Allows long long integer types in your program. 



Default 

The default with xlc, and cc is
-qlonglong, which defines _LONG_LONG
(long long types will work in C programs). The
default with c89 is -qnolonglong
(long long types are ignored). 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c so that long long ints
are not allowed, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qnolonglong









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Object Code Produced		
        
   

        		
    










kpz$:7):#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptlo.htmifm$




Options that Specify Linkage Options


 






    

        
Options
        that Specify Linkage Options

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        To:
        See:
    

    

        Name the output file or directory
        o
    

    

        Search specified libraries
        l
    

    

        Search a path for libraries
        L
    

    

        Produce an output file even if not all
        symbols are resolved
        r
    

    

        Specify which types of library file are
        used by the linkage editor
        brtl

        bstatic, bdynamic		
    

    

        Generate fast external linkage
        inlglue
    









    

        

        Invoking the C for
        AIX Compiler 

        Specifying Compiler
        Options on the Command Line

        Specifying Compiler
        Options in Your Source Program

        Specifying Compiler
        Options in a Configuration File


        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Characteristics

        Options that Specify Debugging
        Features

        Options that Specify
        Preprocessor Options

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Output

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Object Code Produced

        		
        
   

        		
    










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Options that Specify Preprocessor Options


 






    

        
Options
        that Specify Preprocessor Options

        		
        
   

        		
    





 




    

        To:
        See:
    

    

        Define a name in a #define
        directive
        D
    

    

        Undefine a name as in a #undefine
        directive
        U
    

    

        Create an output file for use with the make
        command
        M

        makedep		
    









    

        

        Invoking the C for
        AIX Compiler 

        Specifying Compiler
        Options on the Command Line

        Specifying Compiler
        Options in Your Source Program

        Specifying Compiler
        Options in a Configuration File


        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Characteristics

        Options that Specify Debugging
        Features

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Output

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Object Code Produced

        Options that Specify Linkage
        Options

        		
        
   

        		
    










fk}$	:7):#	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptlso.htmifm$




listopt


 






    

        
listopt

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        nolistopt
        -
    





Syntax 



    -qlistopt | -qnolistopt 



Purpose 

Produces a compiler listing that displays all options in effect
at time of compiler invocation



The listing will show options in effect as set by the compiler
default, configuration file, and command line settings. Option
settings caused by #pragma statements in the
program source are not shown in the compiler listing.



Example 

To compile myprogram.c to produce a compiler listing that shows
all options in effect, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qlistopt









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Output		
        
   

        		
    










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L


 






    

        
L

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -flag
        See
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        -
    





Syntax 



    -Ldirectory 



Purpose 

Searches the path directory for library files specified by the -lkey
option. 



Notes 

If the -Ldirectory option is specified
both in the configuration file and on the command line, the paths
specified in the configuration file are searched first. 



Default 

The default is to search only the standard directories. 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c so that the directory /usr/tmp/old
is searched for the library libspfiles.a, enter:





    
xlc myprogram.c -lspfiles -L/usr/tmp/old









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Linkage
        Options

        -l		
        
   

        		
    










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ma


 






    

        
ma

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
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        options 
    

    

        -flag
        -
        -
    





Syntax 



    -ma 



Purpose 

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as if #pragma alloca directives are in the
source code. 



Notes 

If #pragma alloca is unspecified, or if you do
not use -ma, alloca is treated
as a user-defined identifier rather than as a built-in function. 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c so that calls to the function alloca
are treated as inline, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -ma









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Object Code Produced		
        
   

        		
    










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maf


 






    

        
maf

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        maf
        MAF
    





Syntax 



    -qmaf | -qnomaf 
    MAF | NOMAF 



Purpose

Specifies whether floating-point multiply-add instructions
are to be generated. This option affects the precision of
floating-point intermediate results. Before using this option,
see Floating-Point Compiler
Options for more information about floating-point operations.



Notes 

This option is obsolete. Use -qfloat=maf
in your new applications.







    

        

        Floating-Point
        Compiler Options


        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        -qfloat

        		
        
   

        		
    










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mbcs, dbcs


 






    

        
mbcs,
        dbcs

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        nombcs
        DBCS
    





Syntax: 



    -qmbcs | -qdbcs | -qnombcs | -qnodbcs 
    MBCS | DBCS | NOMBCS | NODBCS 



Purpose 

Use the -qmbcs option if your program
contains multibyte characters. The -qmbcs option
is equivalent to -qdbcs. 



Notes 

Multibyte characters are used in certain languages such as
Japanese and Korean. 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c if it contains multibyte characters,
enter:




    
xlc myprogram.c -qmbcs









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Characteristics		
        
   

        		
    










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once


 






    

        
once

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        noonce
        ONCE
    





Syntax 



    -qonce | -qnoonce 
    ONCE | NOONCE 



Purpose 

Avoids including a header file more than once even if it is
specified in several of the files you are compiling. 



Notes 

The compiler uses the full path name to determine if a file
has already been included. No attempt is made to resolve .
or .. in the path name. #include
statements that include . or ..
in the path statements may cause the same file to be included
more than once. 



The #pragma options keyword ONCE
may appear anywhere in your code. It can be turned on and off by
specifying ONCE and NOONCE,
respectively. 




    

        Important!
    

    

        Do not use the -qonce option if both
        of the following conditions are true:
    
            
  1. You include both stdio.h and stdarg.h
                (in that order) in your source files, and,
    2. 
            
  2. You are using the macro va_list.
                va_list must be defined twice to
                have any effect, and -qonce
                defeats this purpose. 
    3. 
        

        		
    





Example 

The following example shows how the compiler resolves
whether a file has already been included. 



#include <stdio.h>         /* Found in /usr/include/stdio.h */
#include <stdio.h>         /* Already included              */
#include </usr/include/stdio.h>    /* Already included      */
#include <./stdio.h>  /* Resolves to /usr/include/./stdio.h */
                      /* which is the same file, but this   */
                      /* file will be included again.       */







    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults		
        
   

        		
    










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Compiler Options - Overview


 






    

        
Compiler
        Options

        		
        
   

        		
    





The compiler options pages describe each of the
compiler options, including:



    
    
  • The command-line syntax of the compiler option. The first
        line under the Syntax heading specifies the
        command-line or configuration-file method of
        specification. The second line, if one appears, is the #pragma
        options keyword for use in your source file. 
    • 
    
  • The default setting of the option if you do not specify
        the option on the command line, in the configuration
        file, or in a #pragma directive within
        your program. 
    • 
    
  • The purpose of the option and additional information
        about its behavior. 
    • 




Uppercase letters in the option, suboption, or #pragma
options keyword syntax represent its valid abbreviation.
For example, both of the following are acceptable specifications
of the LANGlvl option in a source file: 




    
#pragma options lang=ansi
#pragma options langlvl=ansi





Options that appear entirely in lowercase must be entered in
full. 







    

        

        Invoking the C for
        AIX Compiler 

        Specifying Compiler
        Options on the Command Line

        Specifying Compiler
        Options in Your Source Program

        Specifying Compiler
        Options in a Configuration File


        Resolving Conflicting Compiler
        Options

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Characteristics

        Options that Specify Debugging
        Features

        Options that Specify
        Preprocessor Options

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Output

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Object Code Produced

        Options that Specify Linkage
        Options

        		
        
   

        		
    










d4Q `k$J:7*:#J./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptpas.htmifm$




pascal


 






    

        
pascal

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        nopascal
        -
    





Syntax 



    -qpascal | -qnopascal 



Purpose 

Ignores the word pascal in type specifiers and
function declarations. 



Notes 

This option can be used to improve compatibility of C for AIX
programs on some other systems. 







    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults		
        
   

        		
    










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pg


 






    

        
pg

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -flag
        -
        -
    





Syntax 



    -pg 



Purpose 

Sets up the object files for profiling, but provides more
information than is provided by the -p option. 



If the -qtbtable option is not set, the -pg
option will generate full traceback tables.



Example 

To compile myprogram.c for use with the AIX gprof
command, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -pg





Remember to compile and link with the -pg
option. For example: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -pg -c
xlc myprogram.o -pg -o program









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Debugging
        Features

        -p

        gprof command in the AIX Version 4
        Commands Reference, for details on profiling.
        		
        
   

        		
    










Rk$:7*:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptphs.htmifm$




phsinfo


 






    

        
phsinfo

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        nophsinfo
        -
    





Syntax 



    -qphsinfo | -qnophsinfo 



Purpose 

Reports the time taken in each compilation phase. Phase
information is sent to standard output. 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c and report the time taken for each phase
of the compilation, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qphsinfo









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Output		
        
   

        		
    










uoptlk$	:7*:#	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptpl.htmifm$





p


 






    

        
p

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -flag
        -
        -
    





Syntax 



    -p 



Purpose 

Sets up the object files produced by the compiler for profiling. 



If the -qtbtable option is not set, the -p
option will generate full traceback tables.



Example 

To compile myprogram.c so that it can be used with the AIX prof
command, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -p





Note: When compiling and linking in separate
steps, the -p option must be specified in both
steps.







    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Debugging
        Features

        pg Compiler Option

        prof command in the AIX Version 4 Commands
        Reference, for details on profiling. 		
        
   

        		
    










k"$3:7*:#3./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptpnd.htmifm$




#


 






    

        
#

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -flag
        -
        -
    





Syntax




    
-# 





Purpose

Traces the compilation without invoking anything. This
option previews the compilation steps specified on the command
line. When the xlc command is issued with this
option, it names the programs within the preprocessor, compiler,
and linkage editor that would be invoked, and the options that
would be specified to each program. The preprocessor, compiler,
and linkage editor are not invoked. 



Notes: 

The -# option overrides the -v
option. It displays the same information as -v,
but does not invoke the compiler. Information is displayed to
standard output. 



Use this command to determine commands and files will be
involved in a particular compilation. It avoids the overhead of
compiling the source code and overwriting any existing files,
such as .lst files. 



Example

To preview the steps for the compilation of the source
file myprogram.c, enter: 




    
 xlc myprogram.c -#









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Output

        -v		
        
   

        		
    










)Kk$:7*:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptprc.htmifm$




proclocal, procimported, procunknown


 






    

        
proclocal,
        procimported, procunknown

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        proclocal*
        PROCLOCal,
        PROCIMPorted, PROCUNKnown
    





Syntax 



    -qproclocal | -qproclocal=names 
    -qprocimported | -qprocimported=names 
    -qprocunknown | -qprocunknown=names 
    PROCLOCAL | PROCLOCAL=names 
    PROCIMPORTED | PROCIMPORTED=names 
    PROCUNKNOWN | PROCUNKNOWN=names 



Purpose 

Marks functions as local, imported, or unknown. 



Default 

The default is to assume that all functions whose definition
is in the current compilation unit are local (proclocal),
and that all other functions are unknown (procunknown).
If any functions that are marked as local resolve to shared
library functions, the linkage editor will detect the error and
issue warnings such as: 



ld: 0711-768 WARNING: Object foo.o, section 1, function .printf:
          The branch at address 0x18 is not followed by a recognized no-op
          or TOC-reload instruction.  The unrecognized instruction is 0x83E1004C.




An executable file is produced, but it will not run. The error
message indicates that a call to printf in
object file foo.o caused the problem. When you
have confirmed that the called routine should be imported from a
shared object, recompile the source file that caused the warning
and explicitly mark printf as imported. For
example: 




    
xlc -c -qprocimported=printf foo.c

    
 





Notes 




    

        Local functions 
        Are statically bound with the functions
        that call them. -qproclocal changes the
        default to assume that all functions are local. -qproclocal=names
        marks the named functions as local, where names
        is a list of function identifiers separated by colons (:).
        The default is not changed. 
Smaller, faster code is
        generated for calls to functions marked as local. 

        		
    

    

        Imported functions 
        Are dynamically bound with a shared
        portion of a library. -qprocimported
        changes the default to assume that all functions are
        imported. -qprocimported=names
        marks the named functions as imported, where names
        is a list of function identifiers separated by colons (:).
        The default is not changed. 
The code generated for
        calls to functions marked as imported might be larger,
        but it is faster than the default code sequence generated
        for functions marked as unknown. If any marked functions
        are resolved to statically bound objects, the generated
        code may be larger and run more slowly than the default
        code sequence generated for unknown functions. 

        		
    

    

        Unknown functions 
        Are resolved to either statically or
        dynamically bound objects during link-editing. -qprocunknown
        changes the default to assume that all functions are
        unknown. -qprocunknown=names
        marks the named functions as unknown, where names
        is a list of function identifiers separated by colons (:).
        The default is not changed. 
    





Conflicts among the procedure-marking options are resolved in
the following manner: 




    

        Options that list function
        names 
        The last explicit specification for a
        particular function name is used. 
    

    

        Options that change the
        default 
        This form does not specify a name list.
        The last option specified is the default for functions
        not explicitly listed in the name-list form. 
    





Example 

To compile myprogram.c along with the archive library oldprogs.a
so that the functions fun and sun
are specified as local, moon
and stars are specified as imported,
and venus is specified as unknown,
enter: 



xlc myprogram.c oldprogs.a -qprolocal=fun(int):sun()
  -qprocimported=moon():stars(float) -qprocunknown=venus()








    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Object Code Produced		
        
   

        		
    










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./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptpri.htmifm$




print


 






    

        
noprint

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        -
        -
    





Syntax 



    -qnoprint 



Purpose 

Suppresses listings. -qnoprint overrides all of
the listing-producing options, regardless of where they are
specified. 



Notes 

The default is not to suppress listings if they are requested. 



The options that produce listings are: 



    
    
  • -qattr
    • 
    
  • -qlist
    • 
    
  • -qlistopt
    • 
    
  • -qsource
    • 
    
  • -qxref
    • 




Example 

To compile myprogram.c and suppress all listings, even if some
files have #pragma options source and similar
directives, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qnoprint









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Output

        -qattr

        -qlist

        -qlistopt

        -qsource

        -qxref		
        
   

        		
    










>  k:$	:7*:#	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptpro.htmifm$




proto


 






    

        
proto

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        noproto
        PROTO
    





Syntax 



    -qproto | -qnoproto 
    PROTO | NOPROTO 



Purpose 

Assumes all functions are prototyped. 



Notes 

This option asserts that procedure call points agree with
their declarations even if the procedure has not been prototyped.
Callers can pass floating-point arguments in floating-point
registers only and not in General-Purpose Registers (GPRs). The
compiler assumes that the arguments on procedure calls are the
same types as the corresponding parameters of the procedure
definition. 



You can obtain warnings for functions that do not have
prototypes.



Example 

To compile my_c_program.c to assume that all functions are
prototyped, enter: 




    
xlc my_c_program.c -qproto









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        info Compiler
        Option		
        
   

        		
    











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P


 






    

        
P

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -flag
        -
        -
    





Syntax 



    -P 



Purpose 

Preprocesses the C source files named in the compiler invocation
and creates an output preprocessed source file, file_name.i,
for each input source file, file_name.c.
The -P option calls the preprocessor directly as
/usr/vac/exe/xlCcpp. 



Notes 

The -P option retains all white space including
line-feed characters, with the following exceptions: 



    
    
  • All comments are reduced to a single space (unless -C
        is specified). 
    • 
    
  • Line feeds at the end of preprocessing directives are not
        retained. 
    • 
    
  • White space surrounding arguments to function-style
        macros is not retained. 
    • 




#line directives are not issued. 



The -P option cannot accept a preprocessed
source file, file_name.i as input.
Source files with unrecognized filename suffixes are treated and
preprocessed as C files, and no error message is generated.



In extended mode, the preprocessor interprets the backslash
character when it is followed by a new-line character as
line-continuation in: 



    
    
  • macro replacement text 
    • 
    
  • macro arguments 
    • 
    
  • comments that are on the same line as a preprocessor
        directive. 
    • 




Line continuations elsewhere are processed in ANSI
mode only. 



The -P option is overridden by the -E
option. The -P option overrides the -c,
-o, and -qsyntaxonly option.
The -C option may used in conjunction with both
the -E and -P options. 



The default is to compile and link-edit C source files to
produce an executable file. 







    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Output

        -C

        -c

        -E

        -o

        -qsyntaxonly		
        
   

        		
    










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r


 






    

        
r

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -flag
        -
        -
    





Syntax 



    -r 



Purpose 

Produces a relocatable object. This permits the output file to be
produced even though it contains unresolved symbols. 



Notes 

A file produced with this flag is expected to be used as a file
parameter in another call to xlc. 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c and myprog2.c into a single object file mytest.o,
enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c myprog2.c -r -o mytest.o









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Linkage
        Options		
        
   

        		
    










g_kf:$:7*:#%./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptrnd.htmifm$




rndsngl


 






    

        
rndsngl

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        norndsngl
        RNDSNGL
    





Syntax: 



    -qrndsngl | -qnorndsngl 
    RNDSNGL | NORNDSNGL 



Purpose

Specifies that the results of each single-precision (float)
operation is to be rounded to single precision. -qnorndsngl
specifies that rounding to single-precision happens only after
full expressions have been evaluated.



Notes 

This option is obsolete. Use -qfloat=rndsngl.
in your new applications.



The -qhsflt option overrides the -qrndsngl
options.



The -qrndsngl option is intended for specific
applications in which floating-point computations have known
characteristics. Using this option when compiling other
application programs can produce incorrect results without
warning. See Floating-Point
Compiler Options before you use the -qrndsngl
option.







    

        

        Floating-Point
        Compiler Options


        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        -qfloat

        -qhsflt

        		
        
   

        		
    










kz:$:7*:#&./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptro.htmifm$




ro


 






    

        
ro

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        ro*
        RO
    





Syntax: 



    -qro | -qnoro 
    RO | NORO 



Purpose 

Specifies the storage type for string literals. 



Default 

The default with xlc and c89
is ro. The default with cc is noro.




Notes 

If ro is specified, the compiler places
string literals in read-only storage. If noro is
specified, string literals are placed in read/write storage. 



You can also specify the storage type in your source program
using: 




    
#pragma strings storage_type





where storage_type is read-only or writable.




Placing string literals in read-only memory can improve
runtime performance and save storage, but code that attempts to
modify a read-only string literal generates a memory error. 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c so that the storage type is writable,
enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qnoro









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Object Code Produced		
        
   

        		
    










mskv[$:7*:#'./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptroc.htmifm$




roconst


 






    

        
roconst

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        roconst*
        ROCONST
    





Syntax 



    -qroconst | -qnoroconst 
    ROCONST | NOROCONST 



Purpose 

Specifies the storage location for constant values. 



Default 

The default with xlc and c89
is roconst. The default with cc
is noroconst. 



Notes 

If -qroconst is specified, the compiler
places constants in read-only storage. If -qnoroconst
is specified, constant values are placed in read/write storage. 



Placing constant values in read-only memory can improve
runtime performance, save storage, and provide shared access.
Code that attempts to modify a read-only constant value generates
a memory error. 



Constant value in the context of the -qroconst
option refers to variables that are qualified by const
(including const-qualified characters, integers, floats,
enumerations, structures, unions, and arrays). The following
variables do not apply to this option: 



    
    
  • variables qualified with volatile and
        aggregates (such as a struct or a union)
        that contain volatile variables 
    • 
    
  • pointers and complex aggregates containing pointer
        members 
    • 
    
  • automatic and static types with block scope 
    • 
    
  • uninitialized types 
    • 
    
  • regular structures with all members qualified by const
    
    • 
    
  • initializers that are addresses, or initializers that are
        cast to non-address values 
    • 




The -qroconst option does not imply the -qro
option. Both options must be specified if you wish to specify
storage characteristics of both string literals (-qro)
and constant values (-qroconst). 







    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Object Code Produced

        -qro		
        
   

        		
    










 k@$
:7*:#(
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptrrm.htmifm$




rrm


 






    

        
rrm

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        norrm
        RRM
    





Syntax 



    -qrrm | -qnorrm 
    RRM | NORRM 



Purpose

Prevents floating-point optimizations that are incompatible
with run-time rounding to plus and minus infinity modes.



Notes 

This option informs the compiler that, at run time, the
floating-point rounding mode may change or that the mode is not
set to -yn (rounding to the nearest
representable number.)



-qrrm must also be specified if the Floating
Point Status and Control register is changed at run time.



The default, -qnorrm, generates code that is
compatible with run-time rounding modes nearest
and zero. For a list of rounding mode options,
see the -y compiler option.



This option is obsolete. Use -qfloat=rrm
in your new applications.







    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Object Code Produced

        -y

        -qfloat		
        
   

        		
    










/li>
kȎ$e:7*:#)e./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptsho.htmifm$




showinc


 






    

        
showinc

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        noshowinc
        SHOwinc
    





Syntax 



    -qshowinc | -qnoshowinc 
    SHOWINC 



Purpose 

If used with -qsource, all the include
files are included in the source listing. 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c so that all included files appear in
the source listing, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qsource -qshowinc









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Output

        -qsource		
        
   

        		
    










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spill


 






    

        
spill

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        spill=512
        SPILL=size
    





Syntax 



    -qspill=size 
    SPILL=size 



Purpose 

Specifies the register allocation spill area as being size
bytes. 



Notes 

If your program is very complex, or if there are too many
computations to hold in registers at one time and your program
needs temporary storage, you might need to increase this area. Do
not enlarge the spill area unless the compiler issues a message
requesting a larger spill area. In case of a conflict, the
largest spill area specified is used. 



Example 

If you received a warning message when compiling myprogram.c
and want to compile it specifying a spill area of 900
entries, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qspill=900









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Object Code Produced		
        
   

        		
    










nk0I$:7*:#../usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptspn.htmifm$




spnans


 






    

        
spnans

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        nospnans
        SPNANS
    





Syntax 



    -qspnans | -qnospnans 
    SPNANS | NOSPNANS 



Purpose

Generates extra instructions to detect signalling NaN on
conversion from single precision to double precision. The nospnans
option specifies that this conversion need not be detected.



Notes 

The -qhsflt option overrides the spnans
option



This option is obsolete. Use -qfloat=nans
in your new applications.







    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        -qfloat

        -qhsflt		
        
   

        		
    










tm#tok6$:7*:#/./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptsrc.htmifm$




source


 






    

        
source

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        nosource
        SOURCE
    





Syntax: 



    -qsource | -qnosource 
    SOURCE | NOSOURCE 



Purpose 

Produces a compiler listing and includes source code. 



Notes 

The -qnoprint option overrides this option.




Parts of the source can be selectively printed by using pairs
of #pragma options source and #pragma
options nosource preprocessor directives throughout your
source program. The source following #pragma options
source and preceding #pragma options nosource
is printed. 



Example 

The following code causes the parts of the source code
between the #pragma options directives to be
included in the compiler listing: 




    
#pragma options source
   . . .
/* Source code to be included in the compiler listing
   is bracketed by #pragma options directives.
*/
   . . .
#pragma options nosource





To compile myprogram.c to produce a compiler listing that
includes the source for myprogram.c, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qsource









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Output

        #pragma options Preprocessor
        Directive

        -qnoprint		
        
   

        		
    










\k4$
:7*:#0
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptsrm.htmifm$




srcmsg


 






    

        
srcmsg

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        nosrcmsg
        SRCMSG
    





Syntax 



    -qsrcmsg | -qnosrcmsg 
    SRCMSG | NOSRCMSG 



Purpose 

Adds the corresponding source code lines to the diagnostic
messages in the stderr file. 



Notes 

The compiler reconstructs the source line or partial source
line to which the diagnostic message refers and displays it
before the diagnostic message. A pointer to the column position
of the error may also be displayed. Specifying -qnosrcmsg
suppresses the generation of both the source line and the finger
line, and the error message simply shows the file, line and
column where the error occurred. 



The reconstructed source line represents the line as it
appears after macro expansion. At times, the line may be only
partially reconstructed. The characters "...." at the
start or end of the displayed line indicate that some of the
source line has not been displayed. 



The default (nosrcmsg) displays concise
messages that can be parsed. Instead of giving the source line
and pointers for each error, a single line is displayed, showing
the name of the source file with the error, the line and
character column position of the error, and the message itself. 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c so that the source line is displayed
along with the diagnostic message when an error occurs, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qsrcmsg









    

        

        Compiler Message Format

        Error Severity Levels and
        Compiler Response

        Message and
        Listing Information


        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Output

        		
        
   

        		
    










rFk6+$:7*:#1./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptsta.htmifm$




statsym


 






    

        
statsym

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        nostatsym
        -
    





Syntax 



    -qstatsym | -qnostatsym



Purpose 

Adds user-defined, nonexternal names that have a persistent
storage class, such as initialized and uninitialized static
variables, to the name list (the symbol table of xcoff
objects). 



Default 

The default is to not add static variables to the symbol table.
However, static functions are added to the symbol table. 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c so that static symbols are added to the
symbol table, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qstatsym









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults		
        
   

        		
    










ine is k<$
:7*:#2
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptstd.htmifm$




stdinc


 






    

        
stdinc

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        stdinc
        STDINC
    





Syntax: 



    -qstdinc | -qnostdinc 
    STDINC | NOSTDINC 



Purpose 

Specifies which files are included with #include
<file_name> and #include
"file_name"
directives. 



Notes 

If you specify -qnostdinc, the compiler
will not search the directory /usr/include
(unless you explicitly add them with the -Idirectory
option). 



If a full (absolute) path name is specified, this option has
no effect on that path name. It will still have an effect on all
relative path names. 



-qnostdinc is independent of -qidirfirst.
(-qidirfirst searches the directory specified
with -Idirectory before searching the
directory where the current source file resides.



The search order for files is described in Directory Search Sequence
for Include Files Using Relative Path Names. 



The last valid #pragma options [NO]STDINC
remains in effect until replaced by a subsequent #pragma
options [NO]STDINC. 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c so that the directory /tmp/myfiles
is searched for a file included in myprogram.c with the #include
"myinc.h" directive, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qnostdinc -I/tmp/myfiles









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        -I

        -qidirfirst		
        
   

        		
    










kxL$(
:7*:#3(
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptsti.htmifm$




strict_induction


 






    

        
strict_induction

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
        C
        C++
    

    

        -qoption
        See
        below.
        -
        x
        x
    





Syntax 



    -qstrict_induction | -qnostrict_induction     



Purpose 

Setting -qstrict_induction disables loop
induction variable optimizations that have the potential to alter
the semantics of your program. Such optimizations can change the
result of a program if truncation or sign extension of a loop
induction variable should occur as a result of variable overflow
or wrap-around.



Notes 

This option affects only loops which have an induction (loop
counter) variable declared as a different size than a register.
The most probable incidence of such a situation will likely
involve using 32-bit loop counters (int or unsigned int) when
compiling in 64-bit mode. Unless you intend such variables to
overflow or wrap around, use -qnostrict_induction.




Using -qstrict_induction can cause
considerable performance degradation. However, the option may be
useful for debugging a program sensitive to variable overflow or
wrap-around.



Default



    
    
  • -qstrict_induction with optimization
        level 0, or when using c89 compiler
        invocation mode.
    • 
    
  • -qnostrict_induction otherwise.
    • 








    

        

        Compiler Modes


        Compiler Options and Their
        Defaults

        		
        
   

        		
    










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suppress


 






    

        
suppress

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        nosuppress
        -
    





Syntax



    -qsuppress=msg_num[:msg_num ...] | -qnosuppress



Purpose

This compiler option lets you specify warning or
information messages to be suppressed in compiler listings or
screen displays. 



Notes

This option suppresses compiler messages only, and has no effect
on linker or operating system messages.



Compiler messages that cause compilation to stop, such as (S)
and (U) level messages, or other messages depending on the
setting of the -qhalt compiler option, cannot be
suppressed. For example, if the -qhalt=w
compiler option is set, warning messages will not be suppressed
by the -qsuppress compiler option.



The -qnosuppress compiler option cancels
previous settings of -qsuppress.



Example

Assuming a sample program called myprogram.c, shown below:




    
#pragma incorrect_pragma

void () {
}





Compiling the program above would normally result in the
following or similar compiler message:




    
"t.c", line 1.1: 1506-224 (I) Incorrect #pragma ignored





To suppress this message, compile the sample program with the -qsuppress
option as follows:




    
xlc myprogram.c -qsuppress=1506-224









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        -qflag

        -qhalt

        -qmaxerr		
        
   

        		
    










rk>$:7*:#9./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptsyn.htmifm$





syntaxonly


 






    

        
syntaxonly

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        -
        -
    





Syntax



    -qSYNTAXonly



Purpose

Causes the compiler to perform syntax checking without
generating an object file.



Notes

The -P, -E, and -C
options override the -qsyntaxonly option, which
in turn overrides the -c and -o
options.



The -qsyntaxonly option suppresses only the
generation of an object file. All other files (listings,
precompiled header files, etc) are still produced if their
corresponding options are set.



Example

To check the syntax of myprogram.c without generating an object
file, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qsyntaxonly





or




    
xlc myprogram.c -o testing -qsyntaxonly





Note that in the second example, the -qsyntaxonly
option overrides the -o
option so no object file is produced.







    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Debugging
        Features

        -C

        -E

        -P		
        
   

        		
    










efk\$M	:7*:#:M	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruopttab.htmifm$




tabsize


 






    

        
tabsize

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        tabsize=8
        -
    





Syntax 



    -qtabsize=n 



Purpose 

Changes the length of tabs as perceived by the compiler. 



Notes 

n is the number of character spaces representing a tab
in your source program. 



This option only affects error messages that specify the
column number at which an error occurred. For example, the
compiler will consider tabs as having a width of one character if
you specify -qtabsize=1. In this case, you can
consider one character position (where each character and each
tab equals one position, regardless of tab length) as being
equivalent to one character column. 







    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Characteristics		
        
   

        		
    










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threaded


 






    

        
threaded

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        See
        below.
        -
    





Syntax 



    -qthreaded | -qnothreaded



Purpose 

Indicates to the compiler that the program will run in a
multi-threaded environment. Always use this option when compiling
or linking multi-threaded applications.



Notes

This option applies to both compile and linkage editor
operations. 



To maintain thread safety, a file compiled with the -qthreaded
option, whether explicitly by option selection or implicitly by
choice of _r compiler invocation mode, must also
be linked with the -qthreaded option.



This option does not make code thread-safe, but it will ensure
that code already thread-safe will remain so after compile and
linking.



Default 

The default is -qthreaded when compiling
with _r invocation modes, and -qnothreaded
when compiling with other invocation modes.







    

        

        Specifying Compiler
        Options for Architecture-Specific, 32- or 64-bit
        Compilation


        Compiler Modes

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Object Code Produced

        -qsmp

        		
        
   

        		
    










  ./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruopttl.htmifm$

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tune


 






    

        
tune

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        See
        below.
        TUNE=suboption
    





Syntax 



    -qtune=suboption 
    TUNE=suboption 



Purpose 

Specifies the architecture system for which the executable
program is optimized. 



Notes

Allowable values for suboption are:




    

        auto
        Automatically detects the specific
        architecture of the compiling machine. Use this suboption
        only if the execution environment is the same as the
        compilation environment.
    

    

        
403 

        		
        Produces object code optimized for the
        PowerPC 403 processor.
    

    

        
601 

        		
        Produces object code optimized for the
        PowerPC 601 processor. 
    

    

        
602 

        		
        Produces object code optimized for the
        PowerPC 602 processor. 
    

    

        
603 

        		
        Produces object code optimized for the
        PowerPC 603 processor. 
    

    

        
604 

        		
        Produces object code optimized for the
        PowerPC 604 processor. 
    

    

        
p2sc 

        		
        Produces object code optimized for the
        PowerPC P2SC processor. 
    

    

        
pwr 

        		
        Produces object code optimized for the
        POWER hardware platforms. 
    

    

        
pwr2 

        		
        Produces object code optimized for the
        POWER2 hardware platforms. 
    

    

        
pwr2s 

        		
        Produces object code optimized for the
        POWER2 hardware platforms, avoiding certain
        quadruple-precision instructions that would slow program
        performance. 
    

    

        
pwr3 

        		
        Produces object code optimized for POWER3 processors.
    

    

        
pwrx 

        		
        Produces object code optimized for the
        POWER2 hardware platforms (same as -qtune=pwr2).
        
    

    

        
rs64a

        		
        Produces object code optimized for the
        RS64A processor.
    

    

        
rs64b

        		
        Produces object code optimized for the
        RS64B processor.
    





If -qtune is specified without -qarch=suboption,
the compiler uses -qarch=com. 



You can use -qtune=suboption with -qarch=suboption.




    
    
  • -qarch=suboption specifies the
        architecture for which the instructions are to be
        generated, and,
    • 
    
  • -qtune=suboption specifies the
        target platform for which the code is optimized. 
    • 




Default 

The default setting of the -qtune= option
depends on the setting of the -qarch= option. 



    
    
  • If -qtune is specified without -qarch,
        the compiler uses -qarch=com. 
    • 
    
  • If -qarch is specified without -qtune=,
        the compiler uses the default tuning option for the
        specified architecture. Listings will show only:
        TUNE=DEFAULT
    
    
    • 




To find the actual default -qtune setting for
a given -qarch setting, refer to Acceptable Compiler Mode and
Processor Architecture Combinations. 



Example 

To specify that the executable program testing compiled from
myprogram.c is to be optimized for a POWER hardware platform,
enter: 




    
xlc -o testing myprogram.c -qtune=pwr









    

        

        Specifying Compiler
        Options for Architecture-Specific, 32- or 64-bit
        Compilation


        Acceptable Compiler Mode and
        Processor Architecture Combinations

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Object Code Produced

        -qarch

        		
        
   

        		
    










ProkN$}
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./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptunr.htmifm$




unroll


 






    

        
unroll

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        unroll=4*
        -
    





Syntax 




    
-qunroll=n | -qnounroll 





Purpose

Unrolls inner loops in the program by a factor of n.




Notes 

When -qunroll is specified, the bodies of
inner loops will be duplicated n-1 times, creating a
loop with n original bodies. The loop control may be
modified in some cases to avoid unnecessary branching. 



The maximum value for n is 8.



Default 

The compiler will perform automatic unrolling of inner loops
by a factor of 4 at an optimization level of 2 or higher (for
example, when the -O3 optimizing option is
specified). This will be disabled, however, if -qnounroll
is specified at the same time. 



Example 

In the following example, loop control is not modified: 




    
while (*s != 0)
{
  *p++ = *s++;
}





Unrolling this by a factor of 2 gives: 




    
while (*s)
{
  *p++ = *s++;
  if (*s == 0) break;
  *p++ = *s++;
}





In this example, loop control is modified: 




    
for (i=0; i<n; i++) {
  a[i]=b[i] * c[i]; 
}





Unrolling by 3 gives: 




    
i=0;
if (i>n-2) goto remainder;
for (; i<n-2; i+=3) { 
  a[i]=b[i] * c[i];
  a[i+1]=b[i+1] * c[i+1]; 
  a[i+2]=b[i+2] * c[i+2]; 
} 
if (i<n) { 
  remainder: 
  for (; i<n; i++) { 
    a[i]=b[i] * c[i]; 
  } 
}









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify the
        Compiler Object Code Produced

        -O		
        
   

        		
    










WERk$:7*:#C./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptupc.htmifm$




upconv


 






    

        
upconv

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        noupconv*
        UPCONV
    





Syntax 



    -qupconv | -qnoupconv 
    UPCONV | NOUPCONV 



Purpose 

Preserves the unsigned specification when
performing integral promotions. 



Notes 

The -qupconv option promotes any unsigned
type smaller than an int to an unsigned
int instead of to an int. 



Unsignedness preservation is provided for compatibility with
older dialects of C. The ANSI C standard requires value
preservation as opposed to unsignedness preservation. 



Default 

The default is -qnoupconv, except when -qlanglvl=ext,
in which case the default is -qupconv. The
compiler does not preserve the unsigned
specification. 



The default compiler action is for integral promotions to
convert a char, short int, int
bitfield or their signed or unsigned
types, or an enumeration type to an int.
Otherwise, the type is converted to an unsigned int.




Example 

To compile myprogram.c so that all unsigned
types smaller than an int are converted to unsigned
int, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qupconv





The following short listing demonstrates the effect of -qupconv:





    
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
  unsigned char zero = 0;
  if (-1 <zero) 
    printf("Value-preserving rules in effect\n"); 
  else 
    printf("Unsignedness-preserving rules in effect\n"); 
  return 0; 
}










    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        -qlanglvl		
        
   

        		
    










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U


 






    

        
U

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -flag
        -
        -
    





Syntax 



    -Uname 



Purpose 

Undefines the identifier name defined by the compiler or
by the -Dname option. 



Notes 

The -Uname option is not
equivalent to the #undef preprocessor directive.
It cannot undefine names defined in the source by the #define
preprocessor directive. It can only undefine names defined by the
compiler or by the -Dname option.



The identifier name can also be undefined in your source
program using the #undef preprocessor directive.




The -Uname option has a higher
precedence than the -Dname option.



Example 

To compile myprogram.c so that the definition of the name COUNT,
is nullified, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c  -UCOUNT





For example if the option -DCOUNT=1000 is
used, a source line #undefine COUNT is generated
at the top of the source. 







    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify
        Preprocessor Options

        -D		
        
   

        		
    










Zk@$u	:7*:#Gu	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptvl.htmifm$




v


 






    

        
v

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -flag
        -
        -
    





Syntax 



    -v 



Purpose 

Instructs the compiler to report information on the progress of
the compilation, and names the programs being invoked within the
compiler and the options being specified to each program.
Information is displayed to standard output. 



Notes 

The -v option is overridden by the -#
option. 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c so you can watch the progress of the
compilation and see messages that describe the progress of the
compilation, the programs being invoked, and the options being
specified, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -v









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Output

        -#		
        
   

        		
    










ghtk+$+:7*:#H+./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptwl.htmifm$




w


 






    

        
w

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -flag
        See
        below.
        -
    





Syntax 



    -w 



Purpose 

Requests that warnings and lower-level messages be suppressed.
Specifying this option is equivalent to specifying -qflag=e:e.




Example 

To compile myprogram.c so that no warning messages are displayed,
enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -w









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Output

        -qflag		
        
   

        		
    










cify kt$.:7*:#I../usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptwrn.htmifm$




warn64


 






    

        
warn64

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        nowarn64
        -
    





Syntax 



    -qwarn64



Purpose 

Enables checking for possible long-to-integer
truncation.



Notes 

All generated messages have level Informational.



This option functions in either 32- or 64-bit compiler modes.
In 32-bit mode, it functions as a preview aid to discover
possible 32- to 64-bit migration problems. 



Informational messages are displayed where data conversion may
cause problems. The 64-bit compiler mode , such as possible:



    
    
  • truncation due to explicit or implicit conversion of long
        types into int types
    • 
    
  • unexpected results due to explicit or implicit conversion
        of int types into long
        types
    • 
    
  • invalid memory references due to explicit conversion by
        cast operations of pointer types into into
        types
    • 
    
  • invalid memory references due to explicit conversion by
        cast operations of int types into pointer
        types
    • 
    
  • problems due to explicit or implicit conversion of constants
        into long types
    • 
    
  • problems due to explicit or implicit conversion by cast
        operations of constants into pointer
        types
    • 
    
  • conflicts with pragma options arch in
        source files and on the command line
    • 








    

        

        Specifying Compiler
        Options for Architecture-Specific, 32- or 64-bit
        Compilation


        Acceptable Compiler Mode and
        Processor Architecture Combinations

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Object Code Produced

        		
        
   

        		
    










e k8g$:7*:#J./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptwu.htmifm$




W


 






    

        
W

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -flag
        -
        -
    





Syntax 




    
-Wprogram, options 





Purpose 

Passes the listed options to the designated compiler program.




program can be: 




    

        

            Program
            Description
        

        

            a
            Assembler
        

        

            b
            Compiler back end
        

        

            c
            Compiler front end
        

        

            I
            Interprocedural Analysis tool
        

        

            l
            linkage editor
        

        

            p
            compiler preprocessor
        

    





Notes 

When used in the configuration file, the -W
option accepts the escape sequence backslash comma (\,)
to represent a comma in the parameter string. 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c so that the option -pg
is passed to the linkage editor (l) and the
assembler (a), enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -Wl:a, -pg





In a configuration file, use the \, sequence
to represent the comma (,). 




    
-Wl:a\,-pg









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Characteristics		
        
   

        		
    










gramkb$7:7*:#K7./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptxca.htmifm$




xcall


 






    

        
xcall

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        noxcall
        -
    





Syntax 




    
-qxcall | -qnoxcall 





Purpose 

Generates code to static routines within a compilation unit as if
they were external routines. 



Notes 

-qxcall generates slower code than -qnoxcall.




Example 

To compile myprogram.c so all static routines are compiled as
external routines, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qxcall








 




    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults		
        
   

        		
    










ak$:7*:#L./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptxrf.htmifm$




xref


 






    

        
xref

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -qoption
        noxref
        XREF
    





Syntax 



    -qxref | -qnoxref 
    XREF | NOXREF 



Purpose 

Produces a compiler listing that includes a cross-reference
listing of all identifiers. 



Notes 

Usage modes for xref are:




    

        

            -qxref=full 
            Reports all identifiers in the
            program. 
        

        

            -qxref 
            Reports only those identifiers that
            are used. 
        

    





The -qnoprint option overrides this option. 



Any function defined with the #pragma mc_func
function_name directive is listed as being defined on
the line of the #pragma directive. 



Example 

To compile myprogram.c and produce a cross-reference listing
of all identifiers whether they are used or not, enter: 




    
xlc myprogram.c -qxref=full





A typical cross-reference listing has the form: 










    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Specify Compiler
        Output

        -qnoprint		
        
   

        		
    










ma (,)k꾺$:7*:#M./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruoptyl.htmifm$




y


 






    

        
y

        		
        
   

        		
    









    

        Option
        Type
        Default
        Value
        #pragma
        options 
    

    

        -flag
        -
        Yrounding_mode
    





Syntax



    -yrounding_mode
    Yrounding_mode



Purpose

Specifies the compile-time rounding mode of constant
floating-point expressions.



Notes

rounding_mode must be one of the following:




    

        

            n
            Round to the nearest representable
            number. This is the default.
        

        

            m
            Round toward minus infinity.
        

        

            p
            Round toward plus infinity.
        

        

            z
            Round toward zero.
        

    





Example

To compile myprogram.c so that constant floating-point
expressions are rounded toward zero at compile time, enter:




    
xlc myprogram.c -yz









    

        

        List of Compiler Options and
        Their Defaults

        Options that Define the
        Compiler Object Code Produced		
        
   

        		
    










ts/cunokH$.:7*:#N../usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rupgerr.htmifm$




Page Space Errors During Compilation


 






    

        
Correcting
        Page Space Errors During Compilation

        		
        
   

        		
    





If the AIX operating system runs low on paging space
during a compilation, the compiler issues one of the following
messages: 




    
1501-229 Compilation ended due to lack of space.
  
1501-224 fatal error in ../exe/xlCcode: signal 9 received. 





If lack of paging space causes other compiler programs to
fail, the following message is displayed: 




    
Killed.





To minimize paging-space problems, do any of the following and
recompile your program: 



    
    
  • Reduce the size of your program by splitting it into two
        or more source files 
    • 
    
  • Compile your program without optimization. 
    • 
    
  • Reduce the number of processes competing for system
        paging space. 
    • 
    
  • Increase the system paging space. 
    • 




To check the current paging-space settings enter the command: lsps
-a or use the AIX System Management Interface Tool
(SMIT) command smit pgsp. 



The paging-space overview in AIX Version 4 System User's
Guide: Operating System and Devices describes paging space
and how to allocate it. 







    

         
        
   

        		
    










gnl	$$:7*:#O./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruppfunc.htmifm$

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#pragma alloca Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        alloca Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The #pragma alloca directive
specifies that the function alloca(size_t size)
is to allocate space for an object of size bytes. The
allocated space is put on the stack.






You must include the #pragma alloca directive
to have the compiler provide an inline version of alloca.
Alternatively, the -ma compiler option
substitutes inline code for calls to function alloca
without specifying the #pragma alloca directive
in the source code. If #pragma alloca is
unspecified, or if you do not use -ma, alloca
is treated as a user-defined identifier, rather than as a
built-in function.



This pragma must be included in the source before the first
function definition. Once specified, it applies to the rest of
the file and cannot be turned off. If a program source contains
functions that you want compiled without #pragma alloca,
place these functions in a different file.



Whenever you make a call to alloca, you must
include the header file <malloc.h> to
define alloca. Header files are described in the
AIX Version 4 Files Reference.







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        -ma

        		
        
   

        		
    










lyk:$?:7*:#X?./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rupracha.htmifm$





#pragma chars Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        chars Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The #pragma chars directive specifies
that the compiler is to treat all char objects
as signed or unsigned. 






This pragma must appear before any statements in a file. Once
specified, it applies to the rest of the file and cannot be
turned off. If a program file contains functions that you want
compiled without #pragma chars, place these
functions in a different file.



The chars compiler option has the same effect
as this pragma.



The _CHAR_SIGNED or _CHAR_UNSIGNED macros are defined
according to the setting of the -qchars option
or corresponding preprocessor directives.







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        -qchars

        		
        
   

        		
    










tkY$
:7*:#Y
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rupracom.htmifm$




#pragma comment Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        comment Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The #pragma comment directive places
a comment into the object file.







    

        compiler
        The compiler appends the name and
        version of the compiler to the end of the generated
        object module.
    

    

        date
        The compiler appends the date and time
        of compilation to the end of the generated object module.
    

    

        timestamp
        The compiler appends the date and time
        of the last modification to the sourcer to the end of the
        generated object module.
    

    

        copyright
        The compiler places text specified by
        the token_string into the generated object
        module. This text loads into memory when the program
        runs.
    

    

        user
        The compiler places text specified by
        the token_string into the generated object
        module. This text does not load into memory when
        the program runs.
    









    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
   

        		
    










kz$:7*:#Z./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rupradir.htmifm$





#pragma Preprocessor Directives


 






    

        
#pragma
        Preprocessor Directives

        		
        
   

        		
    





A pragma is an implementation-defined
instruction to the compiler. It has the general form: 






where character_sequence is a series of characters
giving a specific compiler instruction and arguments, if any. 



The character_sequence on a pragma is not subject to
macro substitutions. More than one pragma construct can be
specified on a single #pragma directive. The
compiler ignores unrecognized pragmas. 



Some #pragma directives, as indicated in the
list below, must appear before any statements in the C source
code. The other #pragma directives can be used
throughout your program to affect a selected block of source
code. 



The C for AIX compiler lets you specify many compiler options
as either command line options or as #pragma
statements. In addition, the C for AIX compiler recognizes the
pragmas listed below:




    

        Pragma
        Directive
        Description
    

    

        alloca
        
        Provides an inline version of function alloca.
        This directive must appear before any statements in the C
        source code.
    

    

        chars
        
        Sets the sign type of character data.
        This directive must appear before any statements in the C
        source code.
    

    

        comment
        
        Places a comment into the object file. 
    

    

        disjoint
        
        Lists identifiers not aliased to each
        other within the current scope of their use.
    

    

        execution_frequency
        Identifies the expected frequency with
        which a block of code will be executed. 
    

    

        hdrfile
        
        Specifies the file name of the
        precompiled header to be generated and/or used. 
    

    

        hdrstop
        
        Terminates the initial sequence of
        #include directives being considered for precompilation. 
    

    

        info
        
        Controls the diagnostic messages
        generated by the -qinfo compiler option.
        
    

    

        isolated_call
        
        Lists functions that do not alter data
        objects visible at the time of the function call. 
    

    

        langlvl
        
        Selects the C language level for
        compilation. This directive must appear before any
        statements in the C source code.
    

    

        leaves
        
        Specifies that a given function never
        returns.
    

    

        map
        Tells the compiler that all references
        to an identifier are to be converted to "name".
    

    

        option_override
        Lets you specify alternate optimization
        options for specific functions.
    

    

        options
        
        Specifies settings for compiler options
        in your source program. 
    

    

        reachable
        
        Specifies that the point after a given
        routine, marked reachable, can be reached from a
        point other than the return from that routine.
    

    

        strings
        
        Sets storage type for strings. This
        directive must appear before any statements in the C
        source code.
    





Note: The #pragma page, #pragma
skip, #pragma subtitle, and #pragma
title directives are not recognized by the C for AIX
compiler. 



Another set of pragma directives let you control parallel
processing operations. See #pragma
Preprocessor Directives for Parallel Processing for more
information.







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        Preprocessor Directives

        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives for Parallel Processing

        Compiler Options and Their
        Defaults

        -qinfo

        		
        
   

        		
    










uency kv$:7*:#\./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rupradis.htmifm$




#pragma disjoint Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        disjoint Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The #pragma disjoint directive lists
the identifiers that are not aliased to each other within the
scope of their use. 






where identifier is a primary expression that can be
the name of an operator function, conversion function,
destructor, or a qualified name. 



The directive informs the compiler that none of the
identifiers listed shares the same physical storage, which
provides more opportunity for optimizations. If any identifiers
actually share physical storage, the pragma may give incorrect
results. 



The pragma can appear anywhere in the source program that a
declaration is allowed. An identifier in the directive must be
visible at the point in the program where the pragma appears. The
identifiers in the disjoint name list cannot refer to any of the
following: 



    
    
  • A member of a structure, or union 
    • 
    
  • A structure, union, or enumeration tag 
    • 
    
  • An enumeration constant 
    • 
    
  • A typedef name 
    • 
    
  • A label 
    • 




The identifiers must be declared before they are used in the
pragma. A pointer in the identifier list must not have been
dereferenced or used as a function argument before appearing in
the directive. 



The -qignprag compiler option causes aliasing
pragmas to be ignored. Use this option to debug applications
containing the #pragma disjoint directive. 







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        Example of the
        #pragma disjoint Preprocessor Directive

        


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        -qignprag Compiler Option

        -qignprag

        		
        
   

        		
    










hk$:7*:#]./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rupraexf.htmifm$





#pragma execution_frequency Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        execution_frequency Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The #pragma execution_frequency
directive identifies the expected frequency with which a block of
code will be executed. This information is used by the compiler
as hint to the optimizer. 






The currently accepted value for frequency is:




    

        

            very_low
            The probability of execution for the
            statement block in which the pragma resides is very
            close to nil. 
        

    





This pragma has effect only if:



    
    
  • the program is optimized.
    • 
    
  • the pragma is placed inside statements with block scope
        such as if-then-else, looping and switch statements. A
        warning message is issued and the pragma ignored if it is
        placed outside of block scope.
    • 




Examples



    
    
  1. In the following sample program, execution is unlikely to
        branch through Block A:
    int *array = (int *) malloc(10000);
    
        
    if (array == NULL) {
    /* Block A */
    #pragma execution_frequency(very_low)
    error();
}
    
    
    2. 
    
  2. In the following sample program, code
        "Block B" is marked as being infrequently
        executed, indicating that "Block C" is most
        likely to be chosen during branching.
    if (Foo > 0) {
    #pragma execution_frequency(very_low)
    /* Block B */
    doSomething();
} else {
    /* Block C */
    doAnotherThing();
}
    
    
    3. 








    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
   

        		
    










r/k$V:7*:#^V./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprahst.htmifm$




#pragma hdrstop Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        hdrstop Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The #pragma hdrstop directive manually
terminates the initial sequence of #include directives being
considered for precompilation. 






It has no effect if: 



    
    
  • The initial sequence of #include directives has already
        ended 
    • 
    
  • Neither the -qgenpcomp or -qusepcomp
        compiler options are specified 
    • 
    
  • It does not appear in the primary source file 
    • 




Using precompiled header files can decrease compile time.
Using precompiled headers will not improve compile time
performance in most applications without some organization of the
headers included by each source file. 



Some examples of #pragma hdrfile directives
are:



/************************************************************************
* 
In the following example, only header file h1.h is precompiled and the 
precompiled output is written to the file csetc.pch (provided the 
-qgenpcomp compiler option is specified). If both -qusepcomp=dave.pch 
and -qgenpcomp=john.pch are specified then the compiler looks for the 
precompiled header in john.pch (since this is the name specified last), 
and regenerates it if it is not found or unusable.
* 
************************************************************************/

#include "h1.h"
#pragma hdrstop 
#include "h2.h"
main () {}


/************************************************************************
* 
In the following example, no precompiled headers are generated or used 
for the compilation, even if -qgenpcomp or -qusepcomp compiler options
are specified. 
* 
************************************************************************/

#pragma hdrstop 
#include "h1.h"
#include "h2.h"
main () {}







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        -qgenpcomp

        -qusepcomp

        		
        
   

        		
    










eskb"$:7*:#_./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprainf.htmifm$




#pragma info Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        info Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The #pragma info directive controls
the diagnostic messages generated by the info
compiler option.






You can use this directive in place of the info
option to turn groups of diagnostic messages on or off. The #pragma
info directive overrides any info
options stated on the command line.



Available options are:




    

        all
        Turns on all diagnostic checking.
    

    

        none
        Turns off all diagnostic suboptions for
        specific portions of your program.
    

    

        restore
        Restores the options that were in effect
        before the previous #pragma info
        directive.
Because #pragma info
        operates like a stack, the options restored may not be
        those given on the command line. If no options were
        previously in effect, #pragma info(restore)
        does nothing.

        		
    

    

        group
        Turns on specific groups of messages,
        where group can be one or more of:

            

                group
                Type of messages returned
            

            

                cmp
                Possible redundancies in unsigned comparisons
            

            

                cnd
                Possible redundancies or problems in
                conditional expressions
            

            

                cns
                Operations involving constants
            

            

                cnv
                Conversions
            

            

                dcl
                Consistency of declarations
            

            

                eff
                Statements with no effect
            

            

                enu
                Consistency of enum variables
            

            

                ext
                Unused external definitions
            

            

                gen
                General diagnostic messages
            

            

                gnr
                Generation of temporary variables
            

            

                got
                Use of goto statements
            

            

                ini
                Possible problems with initialization
            

            

                inl
                Functions not inlined
            

            

                lan
                Language level effects
            

            

                obs
                Obsolete features
            

            

                ord
                Unspecified order of evaluation
            

            

                par
                Unused parameters
            

            

                por
                Nonportable language constructs
            

            

                ppc
                Possible problems with using the preprocessor
            

            

                ppt
                Trace of preprocessor actions
            

            

                pro
                Missing function prototypes
            

            

                rea
                Code that cannot be reached
            

            

                ret
                Consistency of return statements
            

            

                trd
                Possible truncation or loss of data or
                precision
            

            

                tru
                Variable names truncated by the compiler
            

            

                uni
                Unitialized variables
            

            

                use
                Unused auto and static variables
            

            

                vft
                Generation of virtual function tables
            

        

        		
    









    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        -qinfo

        		
        
   

        		
    










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#pragma langlvl Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        langlvl Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The #pragma langlvl directive selects
the C language level used for compilation.






This pragma must appear before any statements in a source
file. The compiler uses predefined macros in the header files to
make declarations and definitions available that define the
specified language level.



Language levels available with the C for AIX compiler are:




    

        Language
        Level
        Description
    

    

        ansi
        Defines the predefined macros __ANSI__
        and __STDC__, and defines other langlvl
        variables. The default language level for the clc
        and c89 compiler invocations is ansi.
    

    

        classic
        Defines the predefined macro __CLASSIC__,
        and undefines other langlvl variables.
    

    

        extended
        Defines the predefined macro __EXTENDED__,
        and undefines other langlvl variables.
        The default language level for the CC
        compiler invocation commands is extended.
    

    

        saa
        Defines the predefined macro __SAA__,
        and undefines other langlvl variables.
    

    

        saa12
        Defines the predefined macro __SAA_L2__,
        and undefines other langlvl variables.
    





This pragma has the same effect as the -qlanglvl
compiler option.







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives

        C Language Levels


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        -qlanglvl

        		
        
   

        		
    










   k$L:7*:#dL./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rupralvs.htmifm$




#pragma leaves Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        leaves Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The #pragma leaves directive takes a function
name, and specifies that the function never returns to the
instruction following that function call.






If the specified function is not found, a warning message is
produced.







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives

        C Language Levels


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
   

        		
    











  k$	:7*:#e	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rupramap.htmifm$




#pragma map Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        map Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The #pragma map directive tells the compiler
that all references to an function identifier are to be converted
to "name".






The following describes the options available for #pragma
map:




    

        identifier
        Name of a function.
    

    

        name
        External name that is to be bound to the given
        function.
    





The directive can appear anywhere in the program. The
identifier appearing in the directive is resolved as though the
directive had appeared at file scope, independent of its actual
point of occurrence.



For example: 




    
int func(int);

{
     void func(void);

    
#pragma map(func, "funcname1")  /* maps func to funcname1  */
};









    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        Example of the
        #pragma isolated_call Preprocessor Directive

        


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
   

        		
    










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#pragma reachable Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        reachable Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The #pragma reachable directive takes
a function name, and declares that the point in the
program after that function can be the target of a branch from
some unknown location. In other words, the instruction after the
specified function can be reached from a program point other than
the return statement in the named function.






If the specified function is not found, a warning message is
shown.







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives

        C Language Levels


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
   

        		
    










k$\:7+:#k\./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprastr.htmifm$




#pragma strings Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        strings Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





Specifies that the compiler can place strings into
read-only memory, or must place strings into read/write memory.






This pragma must appear before any statements in a source
file. The default for ansi mode is readonly.
The default for extended mode is writable.
The specification writable is supported for
portability between releases of the XL C compiler product.



This pragma has the same effect as the -qro
compiler option.







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        -qro

        		
        
   

        		
    










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#else Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#else
        Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





If the condition specified in the #if,
#ifdef, or #ifndef directive
evaluates to 0, and the conditional compilation directive
contains a preprocessor #else directive, the
source text located between the preprocessor #else
directive and the preprocessor #endif directive
is selected by the preprocessor to be passed on to the compiler. 










    

        

        Conditional
        Compilation Directives

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        Examples of
        Conditional Preprocessor Directives

        


        #elif Preprocessor Directive

        #endif Preprocessor Directive

        #if Preprocessor Directive

        #ifdef Preprocessor Directive

        #ifndef Preprocessor Directive

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
   

        		
    










9k0$:7+:#p./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprdend.htmifm$




#endif Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#endif
        Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The preprocessor #endif directive
ends the #if
conditional compilation directive. 










    

        

        Conditional
        Compilation Directives

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        Examples of
        Conditional Preprocessor Directives

        


        #elif Preprocessor Directive

        #else Preprocessor Directive

        #if Preprocessor Directive

        #ifdef Preprocessor Directive

        #ifndef Preprocessor Directive

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
   

        		
    










k$:7+:#q./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprderr.htmifm$




#error Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#error
        Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





A preprocessor error directive causes the
preprocessor to generate a severe (S) compile-time diagnostic
error message. Preprocessing continues, but no object code is
generated. 






Use the #error directive as a safety check
during compilation. For example, if your program uses
preprocessor conditional compilation directives, put #error
directives in the source file to prevent code generation if a
section of the program is reached that should be bypassed. 



For example, the directive 



#error Error in TESTPGM1 - This section should not be compiled



generates the following error message: 



Error in TESTPGM1 - This section should not be compiled







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
   

        		
    










cpy.k궬$$:7+:#r$./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprdhfl.htmifm$




#pragma hdrfile Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        hdrfile Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The #pragma hdrfile directive specifies the
file name of the precompiled header to be generated and/or used. 






This pragma must appear before the first #include directive,
and either the -qgenpcomp or -qusepcomp
compiler options must also be specified.



If a file name is specified by both a -qgenpcomp
or -qusepcomp compiler option and a #pragma
hdrfile entry, the name specified by the pragma takes
precedence. If the name specified is a directory, the compiler
searches for or generates a file with the default name in that
directory. 



In order to maximize the reuse of precompiled headers, use #pragma
hdrfile in combination with #pragma hdrstop
to manually limit the initial sequence of #include directives. 



Using precompiled header files can decrease compile time.
Using precompiled headers will not improve compile time
performance in most applications without some organization of the
headers included by each source file. 



Some examples of #pragma hdrfile directives
are:



/************************************************************************
* 
In the following example, the headers h1.h and h2.h are precompiled and 
the precompiled output is written to the file fred.pch (provided the 
-qgenpcomp compiler option is specified). If -qgenpcomp=dave.pch is 
specified, the precompiled output will still be written to fred.pch since
the name specified in the pragma takes precedence. To use the precompiled
output in fred.pch when compiling, specify the -qusepcomp compiler option.
* 
************************************************************************/

#pragma hdrfile "fred.pch"
#include "h1.h"
#include "h2.h"
main () {}


/************************************************************************
* 
In the following example, only header h1.h will be precompiled (provided
the -qgenpcomp compiler option is specified) and the precompiled output 
is written to the file fred.pch. To use the precompiled output in fred.pch 
when compiling, specify the -qusepcomp compiler option. 
* 
************************************************************************/

#pragma hdrfile "fred.pch"
#include "h1.h"
#pragma hdrstop 
#include "h2.h"
main () {}







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        #pragma hdrstop Preprocessor
        Directive

        -qgenpcomp

        -qusepcomp

        		
        
   

        		
    










?k$:7+:#s./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprdif.htmifm$




#if, #elif Preprocessor Directives


 






    

        
#if,
        #elif Preprocessor Directives

        		
        
   

        		
    





The #if and #elif
directives compare the value of the expression to zero. 






If the constant expression evaluates to a nonzero value, the
tokens that immediately follow the condition are passed on to the
compiler. 



If the expression evaluates to zero and the conditional
compilation directive contains a preprocessor #elif
directive, the source text located between the #elif
and the next #elif or #else
preprocessor directive is selected by the preprocessor to be
passed on to the compiler. The #elif directive
cannot appear after the preprocessor #else
directive. 



All macros are expanded, any defined() expressions are
processed and all remaining identifiers are replaced with the
token 0.



The expressions that are tested must be integer constant
expressions with the following properties: 



    
    
  • No casts are performed.
    • 
    
  • Arithmetic is performed using long int
        values. 
    • 
    
  • The expression can contain defined macros. No other
        identifiers can appear in the expression. 
    • 
    
  • The constant expression can contain the unary operator defined.
        This operator can be used only with the preprocessor
        keyword #if. The following expressions
        evaluate to 1 if the identifier is defined in the
        preprocessor, otherwise to 0: 
        defined identifier
    defined(identifier)
    
        
    For example: 
    
        
        #if defined(TEST1) || defined(TEST2)
    
    
    • 




Note: If a macro is not defined, a value of 0 (zero) is
assigned to it. In the following example, TEST must be a
macro identifier: 




    
#if TEST >= 1
    printf("i = %d\n", i);
    printf("array[i] = %d\n", array[i]);
#elif TEST <0
    printf("array subscript out of bounds \n");
#endif










    

        

        Conditional
        Compilation Directives 

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        Examples of
        Conditional Preprocessor Directives

        


        #else Preprocessor Directive

        #endif Preprocessor Directive

        #ifdef Preprocessor Directive

        #ifndef Preprocessor Directive

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
   

        		
    










p/C`k$	:7+:#t	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprdifd.htmifm$




#ifdef Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#ifdef
        Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The #ifdef directive checks for the
existence of macro definitions. 






If the identifier specified is defined as a macro, the tokens
that immediately follow the condition are passed on to the
compiler. 



The following example defines MAX_LEN to be 75
if EXTENDED is defined for the preprocessor. Otherwise, MAX_LEN
is defined to be 50. 




    
#ifdef EXTENDED
#   define MAX_LEN 75
#else
#   define MAX_LEN 50
#endif









    

        

        Conditional
        Compilation Directives

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        Examples of
        Conditional Preprocessor Directives

        


        #elif Preprocessor Directive

        #endif Preprocessor Directive

        #if Preprocessor Directive

        #ifndef Preprocessor Directive

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
   

        		
    










(TESTk$
:7+:#u
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprdinc.htmifm$




#include Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#include
        Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





A preprocessor include directive causes the
preprocessor to replace the directive with the contents of the
specified file. 






The preprocessor resolves macros contained in a #include
directive. After macro replacement, the resulting token sequence
must consist of a file name enclosed in either double quotation
marks or the characters < and >. For example: 




    
#define MONTH <july.h>
#include MONTH





If the file name is enclosed in double quotation marks, (")
the preprocessor searches the place (for example, directories or
libraries) that contain the source files and then a standard or
specified sequence of places until it finds the specified file.
For example: 




    
#include "payroll.h"





If the file name is enclosed in the characters < and >,
the preprocessor searches only the standard or specified places
for the specified file. For example: 




    
#include <stdio.h>





The -I compiler option specifies a search path if the file
name in the #include directive is not an
absolute path.







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        Example of the
        #include Preprocessor Directives

        


        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        -I

        		
        
   

        		
    










ript okLG$N	:7+:#vN	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprdind.htmifm$




#ifndef Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#indef
        Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The #ifndef directive checks for the
existence of macro definitions. 






If the identifier specified is not defined as a macro, the
tokens that immediately follow the condition are passed on to the
compiler. 



An identifier must follow the #ifndef
keyword. The following example defines MAX_LEN to be 50
if EXTENDED is not defined for the preprocessor.
Otherwise, MAX_LEN is defined to be 75. 




    
#ifndef EXTENDED
#   define MAX_LEN 50
#else
#   define MAX_LEN 75
#endif









    

        

        Conditional
        Compilation Directives

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        Examples of
        Conditional Preprocessor Directives

        


        #elif Preprocessor Directive

        #endif Preprocessor Directive

        #if Preprocessor Directive

        #ifdef Preprocessor Directive

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
   

        		
    










ockT$
:7+:#w
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprdlin.htmifm$




#line Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#line
        Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





A preprocessor line control directive supplies
line numbers for compiler messages. It causes the compiler to
view the line number of the next source line as the specified
number. 






In order for the compiler to produce meaningful references to
line numbers in preprocessed source, the preprocessor inserts #line
directives where necessary (for example, at the beginning and
after the end of included text). 



A file name specification enclosed in double quotation marks
can follow the line number. If you specify a file name, the
compiler views the next line as part of the specified file. If
you do not specify a file name, the compiler views the next line
as part of the current source file. 



The token sequence on a #line directive is
subject to macro replacement. After macro replacement, the
resulting character sequence must consist of a decimal constant,
optionally followed by a file name enclosed in double quotation
marks. 



Note: In extended mode, the keyword line
is optional. The directive 




    
# line 300





is equivalent to 




    
# 300





The keyword line is required in ansi
mode. 







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
   

        		
    










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# (Null) Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#
        (Null) Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The null directive performs no action. It
consists of a single # on a line of its own. 



The null directive should not be confused with the # operator
or the character that starts a preprocessor directive. 



In the following example, if MINVAL is a defined
macro name, no action is performed. If MINVAL is not a
defined identifier, it is defined 1. 




    
#ifdef MINVAL
  #
#else
  #define MINVAL 1
#endif









    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
   

        		
    










k$T	:7+:#~T	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprdund.htmifm$




#undef Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#undef
        Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





A preprocessor undef directive causes the
preprocessor to end the scope of a preprocessor definition. 






If the identifier is not currently defined as a macro, #undef
is ignored 



Macros can also be undefined with the -U
compiler option.



Example of Usage

The following directives define BUFFER and SQR:




#define BUFFER 512
#define SQR(x) ((x) * (x))



The following directives nullify these definitions: 



#undef BUFFER
#undef SQR



Any occurrences of the identifiers BUFFER and SQR
that follow these #undef directives are not
replaced with any replacement tokens. Once the definition of a
macro has been removed by an #undef directive,
the identifier can be used in a new #define
directive. 







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Macros

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        #define Preprocessor Directive

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        #define

        -U

        		
        
   

        		
    










k]$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprmct1.htmifm$




## Preprocessor Macro Operator


 






    

        
##
        Preprocessor Macro Operator

        		
        
   

        		
    





Use the ## operator according to the
following rules: 



    
    
  • The ## operator cannot be the very first
        or very last item in the replacement list of a macro
        definition. 
    • 
    
  • The last token of the item in front of the ##
        operator is concatenated with first token of the item
        following the ## operator. 
    • 
    
  • Concatenation takes place before any macros in arguments
        are expanded. 
    • 
    
  • If the result of a concatenation is a valid macro name,
        it is available for further replacement even if it
        appears in a context in which it would not normally be
        available. 
    • 
    
  • If more than one ## operator and/or # operator
        appears in the replacement list of a macro definition,
        the order of evaluation of the operators is not defined. 
    • 




The following examples demonstrate the use of the ##
operator: 






    

        Sample
        Preprocessor Macro Definitions
    

    

        #define
        ArgArg(x, y) x##y

        #define ArgText(x) x##TEXT

        #define TextArg(x) TEXT##x

        #define TextText TEXT##text

        #define Jitter 1

        #define bug 2

        #define Jitterbug 3		
    

    

        Invocation 
        Result of Macro
        Expansion 
    

    

        ArgArg(lady,
        bug)
        "ladybug"
    

    

        ArgText(con)
        "conTEXT"
    

    

        TextArg(book)
        "TEXTbook"
    

    

        TextText
        "TEXTtext"
    

    

        ArgArg(Jitter,
        bug)
        3
    











    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives

        Preprocessor
        Macros


        Preprocessor Macro Operators

        #define Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    










 k궵$\:7+:#\./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprmct2.htmifm$




/**/ Preprocessor Macro Operator


 






    

        
/**/
        Preprocessor Macro Operator

        		
        
   

        		
    





The /**/ operator differs from the ## operator only in
the way that the preprocessor treats white space between the
operator and its arguments. 



For example, the macro definition: 




    
#define XY(x, y) x /**/y





does not give the same result as: 




    
#define XY(x, y) x ##y





because the preprocessor preserves white space with the /**/
operator. With the ##
operator, arguments are concatenated without white space. 



The following examples demonstrate the use of the /**/
operator: 






    

        Sample
        Preprocessor Macro Definitions
    

    

        #define
        ws1(x, y) x /**/y

        #define ws2(x, y) x/**/ y

        #define nws1(x, y) x ##y

        #define nws2(x, y) x##y		
    

    

        Invocation 
        Result of Macro
        Expansion 
    

    

        ws1(Turtle,
        neck)
        Turtle
        neck
    

    

        ws2(Turtle,
        neck)
        Turtle
        neck
    

    

        nws1(Turtle,
        neck)
        Turtleneck
    

    

        nws2(Turtle,
        neck)
        Turtleneck
    







For /**/ to function the same way as ## in ANSI/ISO C,
there can be no spaces between the operator and the arguments. 







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives

        Preprocessor
        Macros


        Preprocessor Macro Operators

        #define Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    










53" k$R	:7+:#R	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprmops.htmifm$




Preprocessor Macro Operators


 






    

        
Preprocessor
        Macro Operators

        		
        
   

        		
    





This page lists and briefly describes preprocessor
macro operators available to you with the C for AIX compiler. To
get more information on any item listed here, go to the reference
page for that item.




    

        Preprocessor Macro
        Operators
    

    

        Name
        Action
    

    

        #
        Converts a parameter of a function-like macro into a
        character string literal.
    

    

        ##
        Concatenates two tokens in a macro, ignoring white
        space between macro tokens and operators.
    

    

        /**/
        Concatenates two tokens in a macro, preserving white
        space between macro tokens and operators.
    









    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        #define Preprocessor Directive

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
   

        		
    










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#pragma ibm critical Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        ibm critical Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The critical pragma identifies a critical
section of program code that must only be run by one process at a
time.



Syntax




    
#pragma ibm critical [(name)]
<statement>





where name can be used to optionally identify the
critical region. Identifiers naming a critical region have
external linkage.



Notes

The compiler reports an error if you try to branch into or out of
a critical section. Some situations that will cause an error are:



    
    
  • A critical section that contains the return
        statement.
    • 
    
  • A critical section that contains goto, continue,
        or break statements that transfer
        program flow outside of the critical section.
    • 
    
  • A goto statement outside a critical
        section that transfers program flow to a label defined
        within a critical section. 
    • 




A thread waits at the start of a critical region identified by
a given name until no other thread in the program is executing a
critical region with that same name. Critical sections not
specifically named by the ibm critical or omp
critical directives are mapped to the same unspecified
name.







    

        

        Program
        Parallelization

        Shared and Private
        Variables in a Parallel Environment

        Countable Loops


        Using Pragmas to
        Control Parallel Processing

        


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives for Parallel Processing

        #pragma omp critical
        Preprocessor Directive

        -qsmp=rec_locks

        		
        
   

        		
    










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#pragma ibm independent_calls Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        ibm independent_calls Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The independent_calls pragma asserts that
specified function calls within the chosen loop have no
loop-carried dependencies. This information helps the compiler
perform dependency analysis.



Syntax




    
#pragma ibm independent_calls [(identifier [,identifier] ... )]
<countable for/while/do loop>





where identifier represents the name of a function.



Notes

identifier cannot be the name of a pointer to a
function.



If no function identifiers are specified, the compiler assumes
that all functions inside the loop are free of carried
dependencies.



Example




    
/* #pragma ibm independent_calls */
int s, a[100], i, N = 100; 
int foo (int);

    
#pragma ibm independent_calls (foo)
for (i = 0; i < N; i++) {
   a[i] = foo(i);
}









    

        

        Program
        Parallelization

        Shared and Private
        Variables in a Parallel Environment

        Countable Loops


        Using Pragmas to
        Control Parallel Processing

        


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives for Parallel Processing

        		
        
   

        		
    










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kꂒ$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprpilp.htmifm$





#pragma ibm independent_loop Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        ibm independent_loop Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The independent_loop pragma asserts that
iterations of the chosen loop are independent, and that the loop
can be parallelized.



Syntax




    
#pragma ibm independent_loop [if (exp)]
<countable for/while/do loop>





where exp represents a scalar expression. When the if
argument is specified, loop iterations are considered independent
only as long as exp evaluates to TRUE at run-time.



Notes

This pragma can be combined with the schedule
pragma to select a specific parallel process scheduling
algorithm. For more information, see the description for the schedule
pragma.



Examples




    
/* #pragma ibm independent_loop applied to a for loop */
#pragma ibm independent_loop
for (i = 0; i < N; i++) {
   a[i] = i;
}

    
/* pragma independent_loop applied to a do-while loop */
i = 0;
#pragma ibm independent_loop
do {
   a[i] = i;
   i++;
} while (i < N);

    
/* pragma independent_loop with if clause, applied to a while loop */
i = 0;
#pragma ibm independent_loop if (dist >= N/2)
while (i < N/2) {
   a[i] = a[i+dist];
   i++;
} 









    

        

        Program
        Parallelization

        Shared and Private
        Variables in a Parallel Environment

        Countable Loops


        Using Pragmas to
        Control Parallel Processing

        


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives for Parallel Processing

        #pragma ibm schedule
        Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    










Ck$7:7+:#7./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprpite.htmifm$




#pragma ibm iterations Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        ibm iterations Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The iterations pragma specifies the
approximate number of loop iterations for the chosen loop.



Syntax




    
#pragma ibm iterations (iteration-count)
<countable for/while/do loop>





where iteration-count represents a positive integral
constant expression.



Notes

The compiler uses the information in the iteration-count
variable to determine if it is efficient to parallelize the loop.







    

        

        Program
        Parallelization

        Shared and Private
        Variables in a Parallel Environment

        Countable Loops


        Using Pragmas to
        Control Parallel Processing

        


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives for Parallel Processing

        		
        
   

        		
    










=k~$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprpplp.htmifm$





#pragma ibm parallel_loop Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        ibm parallel_loop Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The parallel_loop pragma explicitly instructs
the compiler to parallelize the chosen loop.



Syntax




    
#pragma ibm parallel_loop [if (exp)] [schedule (sched-type)]
<countable for/while/do loop>





where exp represents a scalar expression, and sched-type
represents any scheduling algorithm as valid for the schedule
directive. When the if argument is specified,
the loop executes in parallel only if exp evaluates to
TRUE at run-time. Otherwise the loop executes sequentially. The
loop will also run sequentially if it is in a critical section.



Notes

This pragma can be applied to a wide variety of C loops, and the
compiler will try to determine if a loop is countable or not. 



Program sections using the ibm parallel_loop
pragma must be able to produce a correct result in both
sequential and parallel mode. For example, loop iterations must
be independent before the loop can be parallelized. Explicit
parallel programming techniques involving condition
synchronization are not permitted.



This pragma can be combined with the ibm schedule
pragma to select a specific parallel process scheduling
algorithm. For more information, see the description for the ibm
schedule pragma.



A warning is generated if this pragma is not followed by a
countable loop.



Example




    
/* #pragma ibm parallel_loop 

    
   The loop will execute in parallel if N is greater
   or equal to 10000. Dynamic scheduling will be used. */

    
#pragma ibm parallel_loop if (N >= 10000) schedule (dynamic)
for (i = 0; i < N; i++) {
   a[i] = z;
}









    

        

        Program
        Parallelization

        Shared and Private
        Variables in a Parallel Environment

        Countable Loops


        Using Pragmas to
        Control Parallel Processing

        


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives for Parallel Processing

        #pragma ibm schedule
        Preprocessor Directive

        smp=nested_par Compiler
        Option

        		
        
   

        		
    










Rk$::7+:#:./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprpprm.htmifm$




#pragma ibm permutation Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        ibm permutation Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The permutation pragma asserts that specified
arrays in the chosen loop contain no repeated values.



Syntax




    
#pragma ibm permutation (identifier [,identifier] ... )
<countable for/while/do loop>





where identifier represents the name of an array.



Notes

identifier cannot be the name of a pointer.



An array specified by this pragma cannot be a function
parameter.







    

        

        Program
        Parallelization

        Shared and Private
        Variables in a Parallel Environment

        Countable Loops


        Using Pragmas to
        Control Parallel Processing

        


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives for Parallel Processing

        		
        
   

        		
    











countk)$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruprpsch.htmifm$





#pragma ibm schedule Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        ibm schedule Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The schedule pragma specifies the scheduling
algorithms used for parallel processing.



Syntax




    
#pragma ibm schedule (sched-type)
<countable for/while/do loop>





where sched-type represents one of the following
options:




    

        

            
affinity
affinity,n

            		
            Iterations of a loop are initially
            divided into local partitions of size ceiling(number_of_iterations/number_of_threads).
            Each local partition then further subdivided into
            chunks of size ceiling(number_of_iterations_remaining_in_partition/2).
If
            n is specified, each local partition is
            subdivided into chunks of size n, where n
            is an integral assignment expression of value 1 or
            greater.

            
When a thread becomes available, it takes the next
            chunk from its local partition. If there are no more
            chunks in the local partition, the thread takes an
            available chunk from the partition of another thread.

            		
        

        

            
dynamic
dynamic,n

            		
            If n is not specified,
            iterations of a loop are divided into chunks of size
            1.
If n is specified, all chunks are set
            to size n, where n is an integral
            assignment expression of value 1 or greater.

            
Chunks are assigned to threads on a first-come,
            first-serve basis as threads become available. This
            continues until all work is completed.

            		
        

        

            
guided
guided,n

            		
            Chunks are made progressively
            smaller until the default minimum chunk size is
            reached. The first chunk is of size ceiling(number_of_iterations/number_of_threads).
            Remaining chunks are of size ceiling(number_of_iterations_remaining/number_of_threads).
If
            n is specified, the minimum chunk size is
            set to n, where n is an integral
            assignment expression of value 1 or greater.

            
If n is not specified, a default value of
            1 is assumed. 

            
Chunks are assigned to threads on a first-come,
            first-serve basis as threads become available. This
            continues until all work is completed.

            		
        

        

            
runtime

            		
            Scheduling policy is determined at
            run-time.
        

        

            
static

            		
            Iterations of a loop are divided
            into chunks of size ceiling(number_of_iterations/number_of_threads).
            Each thread is assigned a separate chunk.
This
            scheduling policy is also known as block
            scheduling.

            		
        

        

            
static,n

            		
            Iterations of a loop are divided
            into chunks of size n. Each chunk is
            assigned to a thread in round-robin fashion.
n
            must be an integral assignment expression of value 1
            or greater.

            
This scheduling policy is also known as block
            cyclic scheduling.

            		
        

        

            
static,1

            		
            Iterations of a loop are divided
            into chunks of size 1. Each chunk is assigned to a
            thread in round-robin fashion.
This
            scheduling policy is also known as cyclic
            scheduling.

            		
        

    





Notes

Scheduling algorithms for parallel processing can be specified
using any of the methods shown below. If used, methods higher in
the list override entries lower in the list.



    
    
  • pragma statements
    • 
    
  • compiler command line options
    • 
    
  • run-time command line options
    • 
    
  • run-time default options
    • 




Scheduling algorithms can also be specified using the schedule
argument of the parallel_loop pragma statements.
For example, the following sets of statements are equivalent:




    

        

            
#pragma ibm schedule (guided, 10) 
#pragma ibm parallel_loop 
for (i = 0; i < N; i++) {
  ... 
}

            		
        

        

            

                
and

            

            		
        

        

            
#pragma ibm parallel_loop schedule (guided, 10)
for (i = 0; i < N; i++) {
  ... 
} 

            		
        

    





If different scheduling types are specified for a given loop,
the last one specified is applied.







    

        

        Program
        Parallelization

        Shared and Private
        Variables in a Parallel Environment

        Countable Loops


        Using Pragmas to
        Control Parallel Processing

        


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives for Parallel Processing

        #pragma ibm parallel_loop
        Preprocessor Directive

        Built-in Functions Used for
        Parallel Processing

        IBM Run-time Options for
        Parallel Processing

        -qsmp

        		
        
   

        		
    










    




#pragma ibm sequential_loop Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
#pragma
        ibm sequential_loop Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
   

        		
    





The sequential_loop pragma explicitly
instructs the compiler to execute the chosen loop sequentially.



Syntax




    
#pragma ibm sequential_loop
<countable for/while/do loop>





Notes

This pragma disables automatic parallelization of the chosen
loop, and is always respected by the compiler.







    

        

        Program
        Parallelization

        Shared and Private
        Variables in a Parallel Environment

        Countable Loops


        Using Pragmas to
        Control Parallel Processing

        


        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives for Parallel Processing

        		
        
   

        		
    










top"k $:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruretcod.htmifm$




Compiler Return Codes


 






    

        
Compiler
        Return Codes

        		
        
   

        		
    





At the end of compilation, the compiler sets the
return code to zero under any of the following conditions: 



    
    
  • No messages are issued. 
    • 
    
  • The highest severity level of all errors diagnosed is E,
        W, or I. 
    • 
    
  • The highest severity level of all errors diagnosed is
        less than the setting of the -qhalt
        compiler option, and the number of
        errors did not reach the limit set by the -qmaxerr
        compiler option.
    • 




Otherwise, the compiler sets the return code to one of the
following values: 




    

        Return Code
        Error Type
    

    

        1
        Any error with a severity level higher than the
        setting of the halt compiler option has been detected. 
    

    

        40
        An option error or an unrecoverable error has been
        detected. 
    

    

        41
        A configuration file error has been detected. 
    

    

        250
        An out-of-memory error has been detected. The xlc
        command cannot allocate any more memory for its use. 
    

    

        251
        A signal-received error has been detected. That is,
        an unrecoverable error or interrupt signal has occurred. 
    

    

        252
        A file-not-found error has been detected. 
    

    

        253
        An input/output error has been detected: files cannot
        be read or written to. 
    

    

        254
        A fork error has been detected. A new process cannot
        be created. 
    

    

        255
        An error has been detected while the process was
        running. 
    









    

        

        Message and
        Listing Information

        Compiler Message Format


        Message Severity Levels and
        Compiler Response

        -qhalt

        -qmaxerr

        		
        
   

        		
    










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Statement Labels


 






    

        
Statement
        Labels

        		
        
   

        		
    





A label is an identifier that allows your program to
transfer control to other statements within the same function. It
is the only type of identifier that has function scope. 



Control is transferred to the statement following the label by
means of the goto or switch
statements. The case and default
label names are reserved for use within the body of the switch
statement. 






In the examples below, the label is both the identifier and
the colon (:) character at the beginning of each line. 




    
comment_complete : ;            /* null statement label */

    
test_for_null : if (NULL == pointer)









    

        

        Scope of
        Identifier Visibility


        goto Statement

        switch Statement

        		
        
   

        		
    










l^$y:7+:#	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/rusysinf.htmifm$

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Converting Files Containing Multibyte Data to New Code
Pages


 






    

        
Converting
        Files Containing Multibyte Data to New Code Pages

        		
        
   

        		
    





If you have installed new code pages on your system,
you must use the AIX iconv migration utility to
convert files containing multibyte data to use new code pages.
This command converts files containing multibyte data from the IBM-932
code set to the IBM-euc code set. 



The iconv command is described in the AIX
Version 4 Commands Reference. Using the NLS code set
converters with the iconv command is described
in "Converters Overview for Programming" in the AIX
Version 4 General Programming Concepts.







    

        

        National Language Support in
        the C for AIX Compiler

        Where Multibyte Characters are
        Supported		
        
   

        		
    










kF=$D:7+:#D./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruxltmbs.htmifm$




Where Multibyte Characters are Supported


 






    

        
Where
        Multibyte Characters Are Supported

        		
        
   

        		
    





In the examples that follow, multibyte_char
represents any string of one or more multibyte characters. 



 



String Literals and Character Constants

Multibyte characters are supported in string literals and
character constants. Strings containing multibyte characters are
treated in essentially the same way as strings without multibyte
characters. Multibyte characters can appear in several contexts: 



    
    
  • Preprocessor directives 
    • 
    
  • Macro definitions 
    • 
    
  • The # and ## operators 
    • 
    
  • The definition of the macro name in the -D
        compiler option 
    • 




Wide-character strings can be manipulated the same way as
single-byte character strings. The system provides equivalent
wide-character and single-byte string functions. 



The default storage type for all string literals is read-only.
The -qro option sets the storage type of string
literals to read-only, and the -qnoro option
makes string literals writable. 



Note: Because a character constant can store only 1
byte, avoid assigning multibyte characters to character
constants. Only the last byte of a multibyte character constant
is stored. Use a wide-character representation instead.
Wide-character string literals and constants must be prefixed by
L. For example: 




    
wchar_t *a = L"wide_char_string" ;
wchar_t b = L'c'





String literals and character constants are described in AIX
Version 4: Language Reference. The # and ##
operators, preprocessor directives, and macro definitions are
also described there. 



 



Preprocessor Directives

The following preprocessor directives permit multibyte-character
constants and string literals: 



    
    
  • #define 
    • 
    
  • #pragma comment 
    • 
    
  • #include 
    • 




These and other preprocessor directives are described in AIX
Version 4: Language Reference. 



 



Macro Definitions

Because string literals and character constants can be part of #define
statements, multibyte characters are also permitted in both
object-like and function-like macro definitions. 



 



Compiler Options

Multibyte characters can appear in the compiler suboptions that
take file names as arguments: 



    
    
  • -l key 
    • 
    
  • -o file_name 
    • 
    
  • -B prefix 
    • 
    
  • -F config_file:stanza 
    • 
    
  • -I directory 
    • 
    
  • -L directory 
    • 




The -D name=definition option
permits multibyte characters in the definition of the macro name.
In the following example, the first definition is a string
literal, and the second is a character constant: 




    
-DMYMACRO="kpsmultibyte_chardcs"
-DMYMACRO='multibyte_char'





The -qmbcs compiler option permits both
double-byte and multibyte characters. In other respects, it is
equivalent to the -qdbcs option, but it should
be used when multibyte characters appear in the program. 



The listings produced by the -qlist and -qsource
options display the date and time for the appropriate
international language. Multibyte characters in the file name of
the C source file also appear in the name of the corresponding
list file. For example, a C source file called: 




    
multibyte_char.c





gives a list file called 




    
multibyte_char.lst





 



File Names and Comments

Any file name can contain multibyte characters. The file name can
be a relative or absolute path name. For example: 




    
#include<multibyte_char/mydir/mysource/multibyte_char.h>

    #include "multibyte_char.h"

    

    xlc /u/myhome/c_programs/kanji_files/multibyte_char.c

    -omultibyte_char





Multibyte characters are also permitted in comments, if you
specify the -qmbcs compiler option. Comments are
described in AIX Version 4: Language Reference.




 



Restrictions



    
    
  • Multibyte characters are not permitted in identifiers. 
    • 
    
  • Hexadecimal values for multibyte characters must be in
        the range of the code page being used. 
    • 
    
  • You cannot mix wide characters and multibyte characters
        in macro definitions. For example, a macro expansion that
        concatenates a wide string and a multibyte string is not
        permitted. 
    • 
    
  • Assignment between wide characters and multibyte
        characters is not permitted. 
    • 
    
  • Concatenating wide character strings and multibyte
        character strings is not permitted. 
    • 








    

        

        National Language Support in
        the C for AIX Compiler

        Where Multibyte Characters are
        Supported

        -B

        -D

        -F

        -I

        -L

        -l

        -o

        -qlist

        -qmbcs, -qdbcs

        -qro

        -qsource		
        
   

        		
    










thatku$<:7+:#<./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/ref/ruxltovr.htmifm$




National Languages Support in the C for AIX Compiler


 






    

        
National
        Languages Support in the C for AIX Compiler

        		
        
   

        		
    





This and related pages summarize the national language
support (NLS) specific to the C for AIX Compiler.



Note: You must specify the -qmbcs
option to use multibyte characters anywhere in your program. 



Support for multibyte characters includes support for wide
characters. Generally, wide characters are permitted anywhere
multibyte characters are, but they are incompatible with
multibyte characters in the same string because their bit
patterns differ. Wherever permitted, you can mix single-byte and
multibyte characters in the same string. See Restrictions for more
information. 







    

        

        Converting Files Containing
        Multibyte Data to New Code Page

        Where Multibyte Characters are
        Supported

        -qmbcs, -qdbcs		
        
   

        		
    










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Example of Initialization within Statement Blocks


 






    

        
Example
        of Initialization within Statement Blocks

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following program shows how the values of data
objects change in nested statement blocks: 




    
 1   #include <stdio.h>
 2
 3   int main(void)
 4   {
 5      int x = 1;                 /* Initialize x to 1  */
 6      int y = 3;
 7
 8      if (y > 0)
 9      {
10         int x = 2;              /* Initialize x to 2  */
11         printf("second x = %4d\n", x);
12      }
13      printf("first  x = %4d\n", x);
14   }





The program produces the following output: 




    
second x =    2
first  x =    1





Two variables named x are defined in main.
The definition of x on line 5 retains storage while main
is running. However, because the definition of x on line
10 occurs within a nested block, line 11 recognizes x as
the variable defined on line 10. Because line 13 is not part of
the nested block, x is recognized as the variable
defined on line 5. 







    

        

        Initializers

        


        Statement Blocks

        		
        
 

        		
    










ʼn	k>$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuclbrkx.htmm$




Examples Using the break Statement


 






    

        
Examples
        Using the break Statement

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following example shows a break
statement in the action part of a for statement.
If the ith element of the array string is equal
to '\0', the break statement causes the
for statement to end. 




    
for (i = 0; i < 5; i++)
{
   if (string[i] == '\0')
      break;
   length++;
}








The following is an equivalent for statement,
if string does not contain any embedded null characters:





    
for (i = 0; (i < 5)&& (string[i] != '\0'); i++)
{
   length++;
}








The following example shows a break statement
in a nested iterative statement. The outer loop goes through an
array of pointers to strings. The inner loop examines each
character of the string. When the break
statement is processed, the inner loop ends and control returns
to the outer loop. 




    
/**
 **  This program counts the characters in the strings that are
 **  part of an array of pointers to characters.  The count stops
 **  when one of the digits 0 through 9 is encountered
 **  and resumes at the beginning of the next string.
 **/
 
#include <stdio.h>
#define  SIZE  3
 
int main(void)
{
   static char *strings[SIZE] = { "ab", "c5d", "e5" };
   int i;
   int letter_count = 0;
   char *pointer;
 
   for (i = 0; i <SIZE; i++) /* for each string */ 
                             /* for each character */ 
       for (pointer=strings[i]; *pointer != '\0' ; ++pointer)
       {                     /* if a number */ 
           if (*pointer >='0' && *pointer <= '9' ) 
               break; 
           letter_count++;
       }
   printf("letter count="%d\n"," letter_count);
}





The program produces the following output: 




    
letter count = 4








The following example is a switch statement
that contains several break statements. Each break
statement indicates the end of a specific clause and ends the switch
statement. 




    
#include <stdio.h>
 
enum {morning, afternoon, evening} timeofday = morning;
 
int main(void) {
 
   switch (timeofday) {
      case (morning):
         printf("Good Morning\n");
         break;
 
      case (evening):
         printf("Good Evening\n");
         break;
 
      default:
         printf("Good Day, eh\n");
   }
}









    

        

        break Statement		
        
 

        		
    










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Examples Using the continue Statement


 






    

        
Examples
        Using the continue Statement

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following example shows a continue
statement in a for statement. The continue
statement causes processing to skip over those elements of the
array rates that have values less than or equal to 1.





    
/**
 ** This example shows a continue statement in a for statement.
 **/
 
#include <stdio.h>
#define  SIZE  5
 
int main(void)
{
   int i;
   static float rates[SIZE] = { 1.45, 0.05, 1.88, 2.00, 0.75 };
 
   printf("Rates over 1.00\n");
   for (i = 0; i < SIZE; i++)
   {
      if (rates[i] <= 1.00)  /*  skip rates <= 1.00  */
         continue;
      printf("rate = %.2f\n", rates[i]);
   }
 
   return(0);
}





The program produces the following output: 




    
Rates over 1.00
rate = 1.45
rate = 1.88
rate = 2.00








The following example shows a continue
statement in a nested loop. When the inner loop encounters a
number in the array strings, that iteration of the loop
ends. Processing continues with the third expression of the inner
loop. The inner loop ends when the '\0' escape sequence
is encountered. 




    
/**
 ** This program counts the characters in strings that are part
 ** of an array of pointers to characters.  The count excludes
 ** the digits 0 through 9.
 **/
 
#include <stdio.h>
#define  SIZE  3
 
int main(void)
{
   static char *strings[SIZE] = { "ab", "c5d", "e5" };
   int i;
   int letter_count = 0;
   char *pointer;
   for (i = 0; i <SIZE; i++) /* for each string */ 
                             /* for each each character */ 
       for (pointer="strings[i];" *pointer !="\0" ; ++pointer) 
       {                     /* if a number */ 
           if (*pointer>= '0' && *pointer <= '9') 
              continue; 
           letter_count++; 
       }
   printf("letter count="%d\n&quot;," letter_count);
}





The program produces the following output: 




    
letter count = 5





Compare this program with the third program in Examples Using the break Statement,
which uses the break statement to perform a
similar function. 







    

        

        continue Statement		
        
 

        		
    










`a9yk~$}:7+:#}./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuclcstx.htmm$




Examples Using static Storage Classes


 






    

        
Examples
        Using static Storage Classes

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following program shows the linkage of static
identifiers at file scope. This program uses two different
external static identifiers named stat_var.
The first definition occurs in File 1. The second definition
occurs in File 2. The main function references the
object defined in File 1.. The var_print function
references the object defined in File 2.



File 1




    
/**************************************************************
** Program to illustrate file scope static variables         **
**************************************************************/
 
#include <stdio.h>
 
extern void var_print(void);
static stat_var = 1;
 
int main(void)
{
   printf("file1 stat_var = %d\n", stat_var);
   var_print();
   printf("FILE1 stat_var = %d\n", stat_var);
 
   return(0);
}





 



File 2




    
/**************************************************************
** This file contains the second definition of stat_var      **
**************************************************************/
 
#include <stdio.h>
 
static int stat_var = 2;
 
void var_print(void)
{
    printf("file2 stat_var = %d\n", stat_var);
}





This program produces the following output: 




    
file1 stat_var = 1
file2 stat_var = 2
FILE1 stat_var = 1








The following program shows the linkage of static
identifiers with block scope. The test function defines
the static variable stat_var, which retains its
storage throughout the program, even though test is the
only function that can refer to stat_var. 




    
/**************************************************************
** Program to illustrate block scope static variables        **
**************************************************************/
 
#include <stdio.h>
 
int main(void)
{
   void test(void);
   int counter;
   for (counter = 1; counter <= 4; ++counter)
      test();
 
   return(0);
}
 
void test(void)
{
   static int stat_var = 0;
   auto int auto_var = 0;
   stat_var++;
   auto_var++;
   printf("stat_var = %d auto_var = %d\n", stat_var, auto_var);
}





This program produces the following output: 




    
stat_var = 1 auto_var = 1
stat_var = 2 auto_var = 1
stat_var = 3 auto_var = 1
stat_var = 4 auto_var = 1









    

        

        static Storage Class		
        
 

        		
    










./.kz
$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tucldarx.htmm$




Examples of Array Declaration and Use


 






    

        
Examples
        of Array Declaration and Use

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following show four different character array
initializations: 




    
static char name1[] = { 'J', 'a', 'n' };
static char name2[] = { "Jan" };
static char name3[3] = "Jan";
static char name4[4] = "Jan";





These initializations create the following elements: 




    

        name1
        
        name2
        name3
        name4
    

    

        Element
        
        Value 
        Element
        
        Value 
        Element
        
        Value 
        Element
        
        Value 
    

    

        name1[0] 
        J 
        name2[0] 
        J 
        name3[0] 
        J 
        name4[0] 
        J 
    

    

        name1[1] 
        a 
        name2[1] 
        a 
        name3[1] 
        a 
        name4[1] 
        a 
    

    

        name1[2] 
        n 
        name2[2] 
        n 
        name3[2] 
        n 
        name4[2] 
        n 
    

    

          
          
        name2[3] 
        \0 
          
          
        name4[3] 
        \0 
    





Note that the NULL character (\0)is lost for name1[]
and name3[3]. A compiler warning is issued for name3[3].







The following program defines a floating-point array called prices.




The first for statement prints the values of
the elements of prices. The second for
statement adds five percent to the value of each element of prices,
and assigns the result to total, and prints the value of
total. 




    
/**
 ** Example of one-dimensional arrays
 **/
 
#include <stdio.h>
#define  ARR_SIZE  5
 
int main(void)
{
  static float const prices[ARR_SIZE] = { 1.41, 1.50, 3.75, 5.00, .86 };
  auto float total;
  int i;
 
  for (i = 0; i < ARR_SIZE; i++)
  {
    printf("price = $%.2f\n", prices[i]);
  }
 
  printf("\n");
 
  for (i = 0; i < ARR_SIZE; i++)
  {
    total = prices[i] * 1.05;
 
    printf("total = $%.2f\n", total);
  }
 
  return(0);
}





This program produces the following output: 




    
price = $1.41
price = $1.50
price = $3.75
price = $5.00
price = $0.86
 
total = $1.48
total = $1.57
total = $3.94
total = $5.25
total = $0.90








The following program defines the multidimensional array salary_tbl.
A for loop prints the values of salary_tbl.





    
/**
 ** Example of a multidimensional array
 **/
 
#include <stdio.h>
#define  ROW_SIZE     3
#define  COLUMN_SIZE  5
 
int main(void)
{
  static int salary_tbl[ROW_SIZE][COLUMN_SIZE] =
  {
    {  500,  550,  600,  650,  700   },
    {  600,  670,  740,  810,  880   },
    {  740,  840,  940, 1040, 1140   }
  };
  int grade , step;
 
  for (grade = 0; grade < ROW_SIZE; ++grade)
   for (step = 0; step < COLUMN_SIZE; ++step)
   {
     printf("salary_tbl[%d] [%d] = %d\n", grade, step,
             salary_tbl[grade] [step]);
   }
 
   return(0);
}





This program produces the following output: 




    
salary_tbl[0] [0] = 500
salary_tbl[0] [1] = 550
salary_tbl[0] [2] = 600
salary_tbl[0] [3] = 650
salary_tbl[0] [4] = 700
salary_tbl[1] [0] = 600
salary_tbl[1] [1] = 670
salary_tbl[1] [2] = 740
salary_tbl[1] [3] = 810
salary_tbl[1] [4] = 880
salary_tbl[2] [0] = 740
salary_tbl[2] [1] = 840
salary_tbl[2] [2] = 940
salary_tbl[2] [3] = 1040
salary_tbl[2] [4] = 1140









    

        

        Array Type		
        
 

        		
    










tk$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tucldenx.htmm$




Examples of Eumerator Declaration and Use


 






    

        
Examples
        of Eumerator Declaration and Use

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following data type declarations list oats,
wheat, barley, corn, and rice
as enumeration constants. The number under each constant shows
the integer value. 




    
enum grain { oats, wheat, barley, corn, rice };
   /*         0      1      2      3     4         */

    
enum grain { oats=1, wheat, barley, corn, rice };
   /*         1        2      3      4     5       */

    
enum grain { oats, wheat=10, barley, corn=20, rice };
   /*          0     10        11     20       21  */








It is possible to associate the same integer with two
different enumeration constants. For example, the following
definition is valid. The identifiers suspend and hold
have the same integer value. 




    
enum status { run, clear=5, suspend, resume, hold=6 };
   /*          0      5        6       7       6       */





The following example is a different declaration of the
enumeration tag status: 




    
enum status { run, create, clear=5, suspend };
   /*          0     1        5       6             */








The following program receives an integer as input. The output
is a sentence that gives the French name for the weekday that is
associated with the integer. If the integer is not associated
with a weekday, the program prints "C'est le mauvais
jour." 




    
** Example program using enumerations
 **/
 
#include <stdio.h>
 
enum days {
            Monday=1, Tuesday, Wednesday,
            Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday
          } weekday;
 
void french(enum days);
 
int main(void)
{
   int num;
 
   printf("Enter an integer for the day of the week.  "
          "Mon=1,...,Sun=7\n");
   scanf("%d", &num);
   weekday=num;
   french(weekday);
   return(0);
}

    
void french(enum days weekday)
{
   switch (weekday)
   {
      case Monday:
         printf("Le jour de la semaine est lundi.\n");
         break;
      case Tuesday:
         printf("Le jour de la semaine est mardi.\n");
         break;
      case Wednesday:
         printf("Le jour de la semaine est mercredi.\n");
         break;
      case Thursday:
         printf("Le jour de la semaine est jeudi.\n");
         break;
      case Friday:
         printf("Le jour de la semaine est vendredi.\n");
         break;
      case Saturday:
         printf("Le jour de la semaine est samedi.\n");
         break;
      case Sunday:
         printf("Le jour de la semaine est dimanche.\n");
         break;
      default:
         printf("C'est le mauvais jour.\n");
   }
}









    

        

        enum Data Type		
        
 

        		
    










k$E:7+:#E./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tucldox.htmm$




Example Using the do Statement


 






    

        
Example
        Using the do Statement

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following statement prompts the user to enter a 1.
If the user enters a 1, the statement ends. If not, it
displays another prompt. 




    
#include <stdio.h>
 
int main (void)
{
   int reply1;
 
   do
   {
      printf("Enter a 1\n");
      scanf("%d", &reply1);
   } while (reply1 != 1);
 
   return(0);
}









    

        

        do Statement		
        
 

        		
    










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Example of union Declaration and Use


 






    

        
Example
        of union Declaration and Use

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following example defines a union data type (not
named) and a union variable (named length). The member
of length can be a long int, a float,
or a double. 




    
union {
        float meters;
        double centimeters;
        long inches;
      } length;








The following example defines the union type data as
containing one member. The member can be named charctr, whole,
or real. The second statement defines two data
type variables: input and output. 




    
union data {
             char charctr;
             int whole;
             float real;
           };
union data input, output;





The following statement assigns a character to input:





    
input.charctr = 'h';





The following statement assigns a floating-point number to
member output: 




    
output.real = 9.2;








The following example defines an array of structures named records.
Each element of records contains three members: the
integer id_num, the integer type_of_input, and
the union variable input, which has the union
data type defined in the previous example. 




    
struct {
         int id_num;
         int type_of_input;
         union data input;
       } records[10];





The following statement assigns a character to the structure
member input of the first element of records:





    
records[0].input.charctr = 'g';









    

        

        union (Unions) Type		
        
 

        		
    










k$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tucldvdx.htmm$




Example of a void Declaration


 






    

        
Example
        of a void Declaration

        		
        
 

        		
    





On line 7 of the following example, the function find_max
is declared as having type void. Lines 15
through 26 contain the complete definition of find_max. 



Note: The use of the sizeof operator
in line 13 is a standard method of determining the number of
elements in an array. 




    
 1   /**
 2   ** Example of void type
 3   **/
 4   #include <stdio.h>
 5
 6   /* declaration of function find_max */
 7   extern void find_max(int x[ ], int j);
 8
 9   int main(void)
10   {
11      static int numbers[ ] = { 99, 54, -102, 89 };
12
13      find_max(numbers, (sizeof(numbers) / sizeof(numbers[0])));
14
15      return(0);
16   }
17
18   void find_max(int x[ ], int j)
19   { /* begin definition of function find_max */
20      int i, temp = x[0];
21
22      for (i = 1; i < j; i++)
23      {
24          if (x[i] > temp)
25             temp = x[i];
26      }
27      printf("max number = %d\n", temp);
28   } /* end definition of function find_max  */









    

        

        void Type		
        
 

        		
    










    k*9$
:7+:#
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuclfdcx.htmm$




Examples of Function Declarations


 






    

        
Examples
        of Function Declarations

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following example defines the function absolute
with the return type double. Because this is a
non-integer return type, absolute is declared prior to
the function call.




    
#include <stdio.h>

double absolute(double);

int main(void)
{
   double f = -3.0;

   printf("absolute number = %lf\n", absolute(f));
}

double absolute(double number)
{
   if (number < 0.0)
      number = -number;

   return number;
}








The following example defines the function absolute
with the return type void. Within the function main,
absolute is declared with the return type void.




    
#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
   void absolute(float);
   float f = -8.7;

   absolute(f);
}

void absolute(float number)
{
   if (number < 0.0)
      number = -number;

   printf("absolute number = %f\n", number);
}









    

        

        Functions

        Function Calls


        Examples of Function Calls

        Example of the main() Function

        Examples of Function
        Definitions

        


        main() Function

        Function Declarations

        Function Definitions

        double

        void

        		
        
 

        		
    










cunoticlF$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuclfdfx.htmm$
	
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Example of the main() Function


 






    

        
Example
        of the main() Function

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following program backward prints the
arguments entered on a command line such that the last argument
is printed first: 




    
#include <stdio.h>
int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
  while (--argc > 0)
    printf("%s ", argv[argc]);
}





Invoking this program from a command line with the following: 




    
backward string1 string2





gives the following output: 




    
string2 string1





The arguments argc and argv would contain the
following values: 






    

        Object
        Value
    

    

        argc
        3
    

    

        argv[0]
        pointer to string
        "backward"
    

    

        argv[1]
        pointer to string
        "string1"
    

    

        argv[2]
        pointer to string
        "string2"
    

    

        argv[3]
        NULL
    











    

        

        Functions

        Function Calls


        Examples of Function
        Declarations

        Examples of Function
        Definitions

        


        main() Function

        Function Declarations

        Function Definitions

        		
        
 

        		
    










bkW$5:7+:#5./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuclforx.htmm$




Examples Using the for Statement


 






    

        
Examples
        Using the for Statement

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following for statement prints
the value of count 20 times. The for
statement initially sets the value of count to 1. After
each iteration of the statement, count is incremented. 




    
for (count = 1; count <= 20; count++)
   printf("count = %d\n", count);








The following sequence of statements accomplishes the same
task. Note the use of the while statement
instead of the for statement. 




    
count = 1;
while (count <= 20)
{
   printf("count = %d\n", count);
   count++;
}








The following for statement does not contain
an initialization expression: 




    
for (; index > 10; --index)
{
   list[index] = var1 + var2;
   printf("list[%d] = %d\n", index, list[index]);
}








The following for statement will continue
running until scanf receives the letter e.




    
for (;;)
{
   scanf("%c", &letter);
   if (letter == '\n')
      continue;
   if (letter == 'e')
      break;
   printf("You entered the letter %c\n", letter);
}








The following for statement contains multiple
initializations and increments. The comma operator makes this
construction possible. 




    
for (i = 0, j = 50; i < 10; ++i, j += 50)
{
    printf("i = %2d and j = %3d\n", i, j);
}








The following example shows a nested for
statement. It prints the values of an array having the dimensions
[5][3]. 




    
for (row = 0; row <5; row++)
   for (column=0; column < 3; column++) 
      printf("%d\n", table[row][column]);





The outer statement is processed as long as the value of row
is less than 5. Each time the outer for
statement is executed, the inner for statement
sets the initial value of column to zero and the
statement of the inner for statement is executed
3 times. The inner statement is executed as long as the value of column
is less than 3.







    

        

        for Statement

        break Statement

        continue Statement		
        
 

        		
    










k$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuclgotx.htmm$




Example Using the goto Statement


 






    

        
Example
        Using the goto Statement

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following example shows a goto
statement that is used to jump out of a nested loop. This
function could be written without using a goto
statement. 




    
void display(int matrix[3][3])
{
   int i, j;
 
   for (i = 0; i < 3; i++)
      for (j = 0; j < 3; j++)
      {
         if ( (matrix[i][j] < 1) || (matrix[i][j] > 6) )
            goto out_of_bounds;
         printf("matrix[%d][%d] = %d\n", i, j, matrix[i][j]);
      }
   return;
   out_of_bounds: printf("number must be 1 through 6\n");
}









    

        

        goto Statement		
        
 

        		
    










/skR$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuclifx.htmm$




Examples Using the if/else Statement


 






    

        
Examples
        Using the if/else Statement

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following example causes grade to receive
the value A if the value of score is greater
than or equal to 90.




    
if (score >= 90)
   grade = 'A';








The following example displays Number is positive if
the value of number is greater than or equal to 0. If
the value of number is less than 0, it displays Number
is negative. 




    
if (number >= 0)
   printf("Number is positive\n");
else
   printf("Number is negative\n");








The following example shows a nested if
statement: 




    
if (paygrade == 7)
   if (level >= 0 && level <= 8)
      salary *= 1.05;
   else
      salary *= 1.04;
else
   salary *= 1.06;








The following example shows a nested if
statement that does not have an else clause.
Because an else clause always associates with
the closest if statement, braces might be needed
to force a particular else clause to associate
with the correct if statement. In this example,
omitting the braces would cause the else clause
to associate with the nested if statement. 




    
if (kegs > 0) {
   if (furlongs > kegs)
      fpk = furlongs/kegs;
}
else
   fpk = 0;








The following example shows an if statement
nested within an else clause. This example tests
multiple conditions. The tests are made in order of their
appearance. If one test evaluates to a nonzero value, a statement
runs and the entire if statement ends. 




    
if (value > 0)
   ++increase;
else if (value == 0)
   ++break_even;
else
   ++decrease;









    

        

        if / else Statement		
        
 

        		
    










ng=k$N:7+:#N./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuclnulx.htmm$




Examples using the Null Statement


 






    

        
Examples
        Using the Null Statement

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following example initializes the elements of the
array price. Because the initializations occur within
the for expressions, a statement is only needed
to finish the for syntax; no operations are
required. 




    
for (i = 0; i < 3; price[i++] = 0)
   ;








A null statement can be used when a label is needed before the
end of a block statement. For example: 




    
void func(void) {
  if (error_detected)
    goto depart;
  /* further processing */
  depart: ;  /* null statement required */
}









    

        

        Null Statement		
        
 

        		
    










alkꮀ$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuclrtnx.htmm$




Examples Using the return Statement


 






    

        
Examples
        Using the return Statement

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following are examples of return statements: 




    
return;            /* Returns no value            */
return result;     /* Returns the value of result */
return 1;          /* Returns the value 1         */
return (x * x);    /* Returns the value of x * x  */








The following function searches through an array of integers
to determine if a match exists for the variable number.
If a match exists, the function match returns the value
of i. If a match does not exist, the function match
returns the value -1 (negative one). 




    
int match(int number, int array[ ], int n)
{
   int i;
 
   for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
      if (number == array[i])
         return (i);
   return(-1);
}









    

        

        return Statement		
        
 

        		
    










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Example Using the while Statement


 






    

        
Example
        Using the While Statement

        		
        
 

        		
    





In the following program, item[index] triples
each time the value of the expression ++index is less
than MAX_INDEX. When ++index evaluates to MAX_INDEX,
the while statement ends. 




    
#define MAX_INDEX  (sizeof(item) / sizeof(item[0]))
#include <stdio.h>
 
int main(void)
{
   static int item[ ] = { 12, 55, 62, 85, 102 };
   int index = 0;
 
   while (index < MAX_INDEX)
   {
      item[index] *= 3;
      printf("item[%d] = %d\n", index, item[index]);
      ++index;
   }
 
   return(0);
}









    

        

        while Statement		
        
 

        		
    










>øQ:kb	$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuclxass.htmm$




Examples Using Compound Assignment Operators


 






    

        
Examples
        Using Compound Assignment Operators

        		
        
 

        		
    





The table below lists the compound assignment
operators and shows an expression using each operator: 






    

        Operator
        Example
        Equivalent
        Expression
    

    

        +=
        index += 2
        index = index + 2
    

    

        -=
        *(pointer++) -= 1
        *pointer = *(pointer++) - 1
    

    

        *=
        bonus *= increase
        bonus = bonus * increase
    

    

        /=
        time /= hours
        time = time / hours
    

    

        %=
        allowance %= 1000
        allowance = allowance % 1000
    

    

        <<=
        result <<= num
        result = result << num
    

    

        >>=
        form >>= 1
        form = form >> 1
    

    

        &=
        mask &= 2
        mask = mask & 2
    

    

        ^=
        test ^= pre_test
        test = test ^ pre_test
    

    

        |=
        flag |= ON
        flag = flag | ON
    







Although the equivalent expression column shows the left
operands (from the example column) evaluated twice, the left
operand is evaluated only once. 







    

        

        Assignment Operators		
        
 

        		
    










5k&
$
:7+:#
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuclxcom.htmm$




Examples Using the Comma Operator ( , ) 


 






    

        
Examples
        Using the Comma Operator ( , )

        		
        
 

        		
    





The table below gives some examples of the uses of the
comma operator: 




    

        Statement 
        Effects 
    

    

        
for (i=0; i<2; ++i, f() );

        		
        A for statement in
        which i is incremented and f() is
        called at each iteration. 
    

    

        
if ( f(), ++i, i>1 )
   { /* ... */ }

        		
        An if statement in
        which function f() is called, variable i
        is incremented, and variable i is tested against
        a value. The first two expressions within this comma
        expression are evaluated before the expression i>1.
        Regardless of the results of the first two expressions,
        the third is evaluated and its result determines whether
        the if statement is processed. 
    

    

        
func( ( ++a, f(a) ) );

        		
        A function call to func() in
        which a is incremented, the resulting value is
        passed to a function f(), and the return value
        of f() is passed to func(). The
        function func() is passed only a single
        argument, because the comma expression is enclosed in
        parentheses within the function argument list. 
    









    

        

        Comma Operator ( , )		
        
 

        		
    










d vk$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuconopx.htmm$




Examples Using the Conditional Operator


 






    

        
Examples
        Using the Conditional Operator

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following expression determines which variable has
the greater value, y or z, and assigns the
greater value to the variable x.




    
x = (y > z) ? y : z;





The following is an equivalent statement:




    
if (y > z)
   x = y;
else
   x = z;








The following expression calls the function printf,
which receives the value of the variable c if c
evaluates to a digit. Otherwise, printf receives the
character constant 'x'.




    
printf(" c = %c\n", isdigit(c) ? c : 'x');








If the last operand of a conditional expression contains an
assignment operator, use parentheses to ensure the expression
evaluates properly. For example, the == operator has
higher precedence than the ?: operator in the following
expression:




    
int i, j, k;

    (i == 7) ? j ++ : k = j;





This expression generates and error because it is interpreted
as if it were parenthesized this way:




    
int i, j, k;

    ((i == 7) ? j ++ : k) = j;





The value k, and not k = j, is treated as the third
operand. This error arrises because a conditional expression is
not an lvalue, and the assignment is not valid. To make the
expression evaluate correctly, enclose the last operand in
parenetheses. For example:




    
int i, j, k;

    (i == 7) ? j ++ : (k = j);









    

        

        Operator
        Precedence and Associativity

        Expressions and
        Operators

        Types of
        Expressions

        lvalues


        Operator Precedence and
        Associativity Table

        Conditional Operator

        		
        
 

        		
    










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$	:7+:#	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tucsampl.htmm $




Sample Program: C Calling Fortran


 






    

        
Sample
        Program: C Calling Fortran

        		
        
 

        		
    





A C program can call a Fortran function or subroutine.




The following example illustrates how program units written in
different languages can be combined to create a single program.
It also demonstrates parameter passing between C and Fortran
subroutines with different data types as arguments. 




    
#include <iostream.h>

    extern double add(int *, double [],

    int *, double []);

    

    double ar1[4]={1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0};

    double ar2[4]={5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0};

    main()

    {

    int x, y;

    double z;

    

    x = 3;

    

    z = add(&x, ar1, y, ar2); /* Call Fortran add routine */

    /* Note: Fortran indexes arrays 1..n*/

    /* C indexes arrays 0..(n-1) */

    

    printf("The sum of %1.0f and %1.0f is %2.0f \n",

    ar1[x-1], ar2[y-1], z);

    

    }





The Fortran subroutine is: 




    
C Fortran function add.f - for C interlanguage call
    example

    C Compile separately, then link to C program

    REAL FUNCTION ADD*8 (A, B, C, D)

    REAL*8 B,D

    INTEGER*4 A,C

    DIMENSION B(4), D(4)

    ADD = B(A) + D(C)

    RETURN

    END









    

        

        Interlanguage Calling
        Conventions

        Corresponding Data Types

        Using the Subroutine Linkage
        Conventions in Interlanguage Calls		
        
 

        		
    










Ikd$g	:7+:#g	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tudefcfg.htmm$




Default Compiler Configuration File


 






    

        
etc/vac.cfg
        - Default Configuration File

        		
        
 

        		
    





The C for AIX Compiler includes two versions of the
default configuration file. When you install the C for AIX
Compiler, only one of these configuration files is linked to /etc/vac.cfg
according to the following criteria:



    
    
  • If the level of your operating system is AIX 4.3 or
        higher, /etc/vac.cfg is linked to the vac.cfg.43 default
        configuration file 
    • 
    
  • If the level of your operating system is earlier than AIX
        4.3, /etc/vac.cfg is linked to the vac.cfg.41 default
        configuration file.
    • 








    

        


        Specifying
        Compiler Options

        


        Invoking the C for AIX
        Compiler 

        Specifying Compiler Options on
        the Command Line

        Specifying Compiler Options in
        Your Source Program

        Specifying Compiler Options in
        a Configuration File

        


        Resolving Conflicting
        Compiler Options

        List of Compiler
        Options and Their Defaults

        		
        
 

        		
    










mkh$3:7+:#3./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tufncalx.htmm$




Examples of Function Calls


 






    

        
Examples
        of Function Calls

        		
        
 

        		
    





For example, the declaration of funct is a
protoype. When function funct is called, the parameter f
is converted to a double, and parameter c
is converted to an int.




    
char * funct (double d, int i);

main
{
   float f;
   char c:

   funct(f, c)  /* f is a double, c is an int */
}








The order in which parameters are evaluated is not specified.
Avoid calls such as:




    
method(sample1, batch.process--, batch.process);





In this example, batch.process-- might be evaluated
last, causing the second and third arguments to be passed with
the same value.






In the following example, main passes func two
values, 5 and 7. The function func receives copies of
these values, and accesses them by the identifiers a and
b. The function func changes the value of a.
When control passes back to main, the actual values of x
and y are not changed. The called function func
only receives copies of x and y, and not the
actual values themselves.




    
#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)
{
   int x = 5, y = 7;

   func(x, y);
   printf("In main, x = %d   y = %d\n", x, y);
}

void func (int a, int b)
{
   a +=b;
   printf("In func, a = %d   b = %d\n", a, b);
}





This program produces the following output:




    
In func, a = 12    b = 7
In main, x = 5     y = 7









    

        

        Functions

        Function Calls

        Types of
        Expressions

        Operands

        lvalues


        Example of the main() Function

        Examples of Function
        Declarations

        Examples of Function
        Definitions

        


        Function Declarations

        Function Definitions

        float, double

        int, long, short

        		
        
 

        		
    










6Ekf$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuilccbr.htmm$




Interlanguage Calls - Call-by-Reference Parameters


 






    

        
Interlanguage
        Calls - Call by Reference Parameters

        		
        
 

        		
    





For call-by-reference (as in Fortran), the address of
the parameter is passed in a register. 



When passing parameters by reference, if you write C function
that...



    
    
  • you want to call from a Fortran program, declare all
        parameters as pointers. 
    • 
    
  • calls a program written in Fortran, all arguments must be
        pointers or scalars with the address operator. 
    • 
    
  • you want to call from a Pascal program, declare as
        pointers all parameters that the Pascal program treats as
        reference parameters. 
    • 
    
  • calls a program written in Pascal, all arguments
        corresponding to reference parameters must be pointers. 
    • 








    

        

        Interlanguage Calling
        Conventions

        Corresponding Data Types

        Using the Subroutine Linkage
        Conventions in Interlanguage Calls

        Sample Program: C Calling
        Fortran		
        
 

        		
    










kF$
:7+:#
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuilccbv.htmm$




Interlanguage Calls - Call-by-Value Parameters


 






    

        
Interlanguage
        Calls - Call by Value Parameters

        		
        
 

        		
    





In prototype functions with a variable number of
arguments-- specified with an ellipsis, as in function(...)--
the compiler widens all floating-point arguments to double
precision. Integral arguments (except for long int)
are widened to int. Because of this widening,
some data types cannot be passed between Pascal and C without
explicit conversions, and Pascal routines cannot have value
parameters of certain data types. 



The following information refers to call by value, as in C. In
the following list, arguments are classified as floating values
or nonfloating values: 



    
    
  • Each nonfloating scalar argument requires 1 word and
        appears in that word exactly as it would appear in a GPR.
        It is right-justified, if language semantics specify, and
        is word aligned. 
    • 
    
  • Each float value occupies 1 word, float doubles occupy 2
        successive words in the list, and long doubles occupy
        either 2 or 4 words, depending on the setting of the the -qldbl128/-qlongdouble
        option. 
    • 
    
  • Structure values appear in successive words as they would
        anywhere in storage, satisfying all appropriate alignment
        requirements. Structures are aligned to a fullword and
        occupy (sizeof(struct X)+3)/4 fullwords, with any padding
        at the end. A structure smaller than a word is
        left-justified within its word or register. Larger
        structures can occupy multiple registers and can be
        passed partly in storage and partly in registers. 
    • 
    
  • Other aggregate values are passed val-by-ref; that
        is, the compiler actually passes their addresses and
        arranges for a copy to be made in the invoked program. 
    • 
    
  • A function pointer is passed as a pointer to the
        routine's function descriptor. The first word contains
        the entry-point address. See Pointers
        to Functions for more information. 
    • 








    

        

        Interlanguage Calling
        Conventions

        Corresponding Data Types

        Using the Subroutine Linkage
        Conventions in Interlanguage Calls

        Pointers to Functions

        Sample Program: C Calling
        Fortran 


        -qldbl128/-qlongdouble

        		
        
 

        		
    










kz$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuilcfrv.htmm$




Interlanguage Calls - Function Return Values


 






    

        
Interlanguage
        Calls - Function Return Values

        		
        
 

        		
    





Functions pass their return values according to type: 



    
    
  • Pointers, enumerated types, and integral values (int,
        short, long, char,
        and unsigned types) of any length are returned,
        right-justified, in R3; long long values
        are returned in R3 and R4. 
    • 
    
  • floats and doubles are
        returned in FP1; 128-bit long doubles
        are returned in FP1 and FP2. 
    • 
    
  • Calling functions supply a pointer to a memory location
        where the called function stores the returned value. 
    • 
    
  • long doubles are returned in R1 and R2. 
    • 








    

        

        Interlanguage Calling
        Conventions

        Corresponding Data Types

        Using the Subroutine Linkage
        Conventions in Interlanguage Calls

        Sample Program: C Calling
        Fortran		
        
 

        		
    










kꦢ$F	:7+:#F	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuilcptf.htmm$




Interlanguage Calls - Pointers to Functions


 






    

        
Interlanguage
        Calls - Pointers to Functions

        		
        
 

        		
    





A function pointer is a data type whose values range
over function addresses. Variables of this type appear in several
programming languages such as C and Fortran. In Fortran, a dummy
argument that appears in an EXTERNAL statement
is a function pointer. Function pointers are supported in
contexts such as the target of a call statement or an actual
argument of such a statement. 



A function pointer is a fullword quantity that is the address
of a function descriptor. The function descriptor is a 3-word
object. The first word contains the address of the entry point of
the procedure, the second has the address of the TOC of the
module in which the procedure is bound, and the third is the
environment pointer for languages such as Pascal. There is only
one function descriptor per entry point. It is bound into the
same module as the function it identifies, if the function is
external. The descriptor has an external name, which is the same
as the function name, but without a leading .
(dot). This descriptor name is used in all import and export
operations. 







    

        

        Interlanguage Calling
        Conventions

        Corresponding Data Types

        Using the Subroutine Linkage
        Conventions in Interlanguage Calls

        Sample Program: C Calling
        Fortran		
        
 

        		
    










s k
t$T:7+:#T./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuilcrpp.htmm$




Interlanguage Calls - Rules for Passing Parameters by
Value


 






    

        
Interlanguage
        Calls - Rules for Passing Parameters by Value

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following is an example of a call to a prototyped
function: 




    
int i, j, k;

    double d1, d2;

    float f1;

    short int s1;

    char c;

    ...

    void f(int, int, int, double, float, char, double, short);

    f( i, j, k, d1, f1, c, d2, s1 );





The function call results in the following storage mapping: 






Notes:



    
    
  1. A parameter is guaranteed to be mapped only if its
        address is taken.
    2. 
    
  2. Data with less than fullword alignment is copied into
        high-order bytes. Because the function in the example is
        prototyped, the mapping of parameters c
        and s1 is right-justified.
    3. 
    
  3. The parameter list is a conceptually contiguous piece of
        storage containing a list of words. For efficiency, the
        first 8 words of the list are not actually stored in the
        space reserved for them, but passed in GPR3-GPR10.
        Furthermore, the first 13 floating point value parameter
        values are not passed in GPRs, but are passed in
        FPR1-FPR13. In all cases, parameters beyond the first 8
        words of the list are also stored in the space reserved
        for them.
    4. 
    
  4. If thecalled procedure intends to treat the parameter
        list as a contiguous piece of storage (for example, if
        the address of a parameter is taken in C), the parameter
        registers are stored in the space reserved for them in
        the stack.
    5. 
    
  5. A register image is stored on the stack.
    6. 
    
  6. The argument area (P1 ... Pn) must
        be large enough to hold the largest parameter list.
    7. 








    

        

        Interlanguage Calling
        Conventions

        Corresponding Data Types

        Using the Subroutine Linkage
        Conventions in Interlanguage Calls

        Sample Program: C Calling
        Fortran		
        
 

        		
    










llink$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuilcsfl.htmm$




Interlanguage Calls - Stack Floor


 






    

        
Interlanguage
        Calls - Stack Floor

        		
        
 

        		
    





The stack floor is a system-defined address
below which the stack cannot grow. All programs in the system
must avoid accessing locations in the stack segment that are
below the stack floor. 



Other system invariants related to the stack must be
maintained by all compilers and assemblers: 



    
    
  • No data is saved or accessed from an address lower than
        the stack floor. 
    • 
    
  • The stack pointer is always valid. When the stack frame
        size is more than 32767 bytes, take care to ensure that
        its value is changed in a single instruction, so that
        there is no timing window in which a signal handler would
        either overlay the stack data or erroneously appear to
        overflow the stack segment. 
    • 








    

        

        Interlanguage Calling
        Conventions

        Corresponding Data Types

        Using the Subroutine Linkage
        Conventions in Interlanguage Calls

        Sample Program: C Calling
        Fortran		
        
 

        		
    










 piece k$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuilcsov.htmm$




Interlanguage Calls - Stack Overflow


 






    

        
Interlanguage
        Calls - Stack Overflow

        		
        
 

        		
    





The RISC System/6000 linkage convention requires no
explicit inline check for overflow. The operating system uses a
storage-protect mechanism to detect stores past the end of the
stack segment. 







    

        

        Interlanguage Calling
        Conventions

        Corresponding Data Types

        Using the Subroutine Linkage
        Conventions in Interlanguage Calls

        Sample Program: C Calling
        Fortran		
        
 

        		
    










"tuintekl$L:7+:#L./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuilctba.htmm$




Interlanguage Calls - Traceback Table


 






    

        
Interlanguage
        Calls - Traceback Table

        		
        
 

        		
    





The compiler supports the traceback mechanism, which
is required by the AIX Version 4 Operating System symbolic
debugger to unravel the call or return stack. Each function has a
traceback table in the text segment at the end of its code. This
table contains information about the function, including the type
of function as well as stack frame and register information. 







    

        

        Interlanguage Calling
        Conventions

        Corresponding Data Types

        Using the Subroutine Linkage
        Conventions in Interlanguage Calls

        Sample Program: C Calling
        Fortran		
        
 

        		
    










k.htkp$:7+:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuilctec.htmm$




Interlanguage Calls - Type Encoding and Checking


 






    

        
Interlanguage
        Calls - Type Encoding and Checking

        		
        
 

        		
    





Detecting errors before a program is run is a key
objective of the C for AIX compiler. Runtime errors are hard to
find, and a many are caused by mismatching subroutine interfaces
or conflicting data definitions. 



The C for AIX compiler uses a scheme for early detection that
encodes information about all external symbols (data and
programs). If the -qextchk
option has been specified, this information about external
symbols is checked at bind or load time for consistency. 



The Assembler Language Reference for the AIX RISC
System/6000 book describes the following details of the
Subroutine Linkage Convention: 



    
    
  • Register usage (general-purpose, floating-point, and
        special-purpose registers) 
    • 
    
  • Stack 
    • 
    
  • The calling routine's responsibilities 
    • 
    
  • The called routine's responsibilities 
    • 








    

        

        Interlanguage Calling
        Conventions

        Corresponding Data Types

        Using the Subroutine Linkage
        Conventions in Interlanguage Calls

        Sample Program: C Calling
        Fortran		
        
 

        		
    










k$:7,:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuinclud.htmm$




Specifying Path Names for Include Files


 






    

        
Specifying
        Path Names for Include Files

        		
        
 

        		
    





When you imbed one source file in another using the #include
preprocessor directive, you must supply the name of the file to
be included. You can specify a file name either by using a full
path name or by using a relative path name. 



 



Using a Full Path Name to Imbed Files



The full path name, also called the absolute path
name, is the file's complete name starting from the root
directory. These path names start with the /
(slash) character. The full path name locates the specified file
regardless of the directory you are presently in (called your working
or current directory). 



The following example specifies the full path to file mine.h
in John Doe's subdirectory example_prog: 




    
/u/johndoe/example_prog/mine.h





 



Using a Relative Path Name to Imbed Files



The relative path name locates a file relative to the
directory that holds the current source file or relative to
directories defined using the -Idirectory
option. See AIX Version 4 System User's Guide: Operating
System and Devices for a complete explanation of the AIX.
file system. 



 



Directory Search Sequence for Include
Files Using Relative Path Names



The C language defines two versions of the #include
preprocessor directive. The C for AIX compiler supports both.
With the #include directive, you can search
directories by enclosing the file name between < >
or " " characters. 



The result of using each method is as follows: 




    

        #include
        type
        Directory Search
        Order
    

    

        #include <file_name>
        
    
            
  1. If you specify the -Idirectory
                option, the compiler searches for file_name
                in the directory called directory first.
                If more than one directory is specified, the
                compiler searches the directories in the order
                that they appear on the command line. 
    2. 
            
  2. Searches the directory /usr/include.
            
    3. 
        

        		
    

    

        #include "file_name"
        
    
            
  1. Searches the directory where your current source
                file resides. The current source file is the one
                that contains the directive #include "file_name".
            
    2. 
            
  2. If you specify the option -Idirectory,
                the compiler searches for file_name in directory.
                If more than one directory is specified, the
                compiler searches the directories in the order
                that they appear on the command line. 
    3. 
            
  3. Searches the directory /usr/include.
            
    4. 
        

        		
    





Notes:



    
    
  1. file_name is the path name of the file to be
        included. When you specify a full path name, the two
        versions of the #include directive have
        the same effect because the location of the file to be
        included is completely specified. With a relative path
        name, the directory search sequence is determined by
        whether you use the < > or
        the " " characters. 
    2. 
    
  2. The only difference between the two versions of the #include
        directive is that the " "
        (user include) version first searches in the directory
        where your current source file resides. Typically,
        standard header files are included using the <
        > (system include) version, and header files
        that you create are included using the " "
        (user include) version. 
    3. 
    
  3. You can change the search order by specifying the -qstdinc
        and -qidirfirst options along with the -Idirectory
        option. 
    Use the -qnostdinc option to
        search only the directories specified with the -Idirectory
        option and the current source file directory, if
        applicable. The /usr/include directory
        is not searched. 
    
        
    Use the -qidirfirst option with the #include
        "file_name"
        directive to search the directories specified with the -Idirectory
        option before searching other directories.
    
        
    Use the -I option to specify the
        directory search paths.
    
    
    4. 








    

        

        External Structure
        of a C Program

        -I

        -qidirfirst

        -qstdinc		
        
 

        		
    















Interlanguage Calling Conventions


 






    

        
Interlanguage
        Calling Conventions

        		
        
 

        		
    





You should follow these recommendations when writing C
for AIX code to call functions written in other languages: 



    
    
  • Avoid using uppercase letters in identifiers. Fortran and
        Pascal use only lowercase letters for all external names.
        Both fold external identifiers to lowercase (by default).
    
    • 
    
  • Avoid using the underscore (_) and dollar sign ($) as the
        first character in identifiers, to prevent conflict with
        the naming conventions for the C language library. 
    • 
    
  • Avoid using long identifier names. The maximum number of
        significant characters in identifiers is 250 characters. 
    • 








    

        

        Corresponding Data Types

        Using the Subroutine Linkage
        Conventions in Interlanguage Calls...

        Sample Program: C Calling
        Fortran		
        
 

        		
    










   direkꢿ$:7,:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuintro.htmm$




Introducing C for AIX Procedures


 






    

        
Introducing
        C for AIX Procedures

        		
        
 

        		
    





The panel to the left shows a general list of C for
AIX procedural activities. Look here to find instructions for
performing C for AIX operations, and examples of the same.



Any entry ending with ... expands to a list
of related sub-topics. Entries not ending with ...
link directly to information content on the chosen topic, which
will appear in this panel.




    

         
        
 

        		
    










h="100k$:7,:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuinvoke.htmm$





Invoking the Compiler


 






    

        
Invoking
        the Compiler

        		
        
 

        		
    





All forms of the C for AIX compiler are invoked using
the following syntax, where invocation can be replaced
with any valid C for AIX compiler mode invocation command:






The parameters of the compiler invocation command can be the
names of input files, compiler options, and linkage-editor
options. Compiler options perform a wide variety of functions,
such as setting compiler characteristics, describing the object
code and compiler output to be produced, and performing some
preprocessor functions. 



To compile without link-editing, use the -c
compiler option. The -c option stops the
compiler after compilation is completed and produces as output,
an object file file_name.o for each file_name.c
input source file. The linkage editor is not invoked. You can
link-edit the object files later using the invocation command,
specifying the object files without the -c
option.



Notes



    
    
  1. Any object files produced from an earlier compilation are
        deleted as part of the compilation process, even if new
        object files are not produced.
    2. 
    
  2. By default, the invocation command calls both
        the compiler and the linkage editor. It passes linkage
        editor options to the linkage editor. Consequently, the
        invocation commands also accept all linkage editor
        options.
    3. 








    

        

        C Program
        Development Cycle

        Compiler Modes


        Specifying Compiler Options on
        the Command Line

        


        List of Compiler
        Options and Their Defaults

        Message Severity Levels
        and Compiler Response

        Compiler Return Codes

        Diagnostic Message
        Format

        -c

        		
        
 

        		
    










ap>#k~$
:7,:#
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuiosync.htmm$




Example of Reading and Writing to Mapped-to-I/O Space


 






    

        
Example
        of Reading and Writing to Mapped-to-I/O Space

        		
        
 

        		
    





 



/* The following example assumes a special machine
with three hardware locations.
There is an input data buffer at 0xFFFFFF20
There is an output data buffer at 0xFFFFFF24
There is a control data buffer at 0xFFFFFF28
The third-least-significant bit set in the control
buffer indicates there is data in the input buffer.
This bit is unset when the data is read out of the
input buffer by the program.
The second-least-significant bit set in the control
buffer indicates the output device is ready to accept
output data.
This bit is unset when the data is placed in the
output buffer and is read out.
*/
typedef unsigned long datatype, controltype, counttype;
#define CONTROLLER ((const volatile controltype *const) 0xFFFFFF28)
#define INPUT_BUF ((const volatile datatype *const) 0xFFFFFF20)
#define OUTPUT_BUF ((volatile datatype *const) 0xFFFFFF24)
#define INPUT_READY_BIT 0x4
#define OUTPUT_READY_BIT 0x2
#define INPUT_READY ((*CONTROLLER) & INPUT_READY_BIT)
#define OUTPUT_READY ((*CONTROLLER) & OUTPUT_READY_BIT)
/*
The function copy_data copies data from the input buffer
to the output buffer until an input value of 0 is seen.
The number of characters copied is returned.
*/
 
/* Make count of the input global so that other CPUs can access it */
counttype volatile count=0;
counttype copy_data()
{
    datatype temp;
    for(;;) {
            while (!INPUT_READY);         /* Wait for input      */
            temp=*INPUT_BUF;
            __iospace_eieio();  /*     synchronize the I/O */
            if (temp==0) return count;
 
            while (!OUTPUT_READY);        /* Wait for output     */
            *OUTPUT_BUF=temp;
            __iospace_eieio();  /*     synchronize the I/O */
            count++;
            __iospace_sync();   /*     synchronize the CPU */
                                /*           for count to allow  */
                                /*           other CPUs to
                                /*           access it           */
     }
}







    

        

        Example of Multiple Writes to
        a Single Register


        Implementation
        Dependencies Overview

        Synchronization of
        Stores and Loads to I/O Space

        		
        
 

        		
    










em>&k긛$w:7,:#w./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuledinv.htmm$




Invoking the Linkage Editor


 






    

        
Invoking
        the Linkage Editor

        		
        
 

        		
    





The linkage editor link-edits all of the specified
object files to create one executable file. Invoking the compiler
with one of the invocation commands automatically calls the
linkage editor unless you specify one of the following compiler
options: -E, -P, -c,
or -#. 



 



Input Files



Object files, library files, and unstripped executable files
serve as input to the linkage editor. 



 



Object Files



Object files must have a .o suffix, for
example, year.o. 



 



Library Files



Static library file names have a .a suffix,
for example, libold.a. Dynamic library file
names have a .so suffix, for example, libold.so.
Library files are created by combining one or more files into a
single archive file with the AIX ar command. For
a description of the ar command, refer to the AIX
Version 4 Commands Reference.



 



Output Files



The linkage editor generates an executable file and
places it in your current directory. The default name for an
executable file is a.out. To name the executable
file explicitly, use the -ofile_name
option with the xlc command, where file_name
is the name you want to give to the executable file. If you use
the -ofile_name option, the resulting
executable file is called file_name. 



 



Using the ld Command



You can invoke the linkage editor explicitly with the ld
command. However, the compiler invocation commands set several
linkage-editor options, and link some standard files into the
executable output by default. In most cases, it is better to use
one of the compiler invocation commands to link-edit your .o
files. 



Note: When link-editing .o files, do
not use the -e option of the ld
command. The default entry point of the executable output is __start.
Changing this label with the -e flag can cause
erratic results. 







    

        

        C Program
        Development Cycle


        Invoking the Compiler

        


        -#
        

        -c

        -E

        -o

        -P

        		
        
 

        		
    










ekF1$:7,:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tumemdbg.htmm$




Debugging Problems with Heap Memory


 






    

        
Debugging
        Programs with Heap Memory

        		
        
 

        		
    





C for AIX provides debug versions of both general
memory management functions and heap-specific memory management
functions. To automatically call the debug versions of these
functions, specify the -qheapdebug compiler
option when compiling your program. Bear in mind that specifying
this option can significantly increase the memory requirements
and running time of your program.



 



Memory Allocation Fill Pattern



Some debug functions set all the memory they allocate to a
specified fill pattern. This lets you easily locate areas in
memory that your program uses.



The debug_malloc, debug_realloc,
and debug_umalloc functions sets allocated
memory to a default repeating 0xAA fill pattern. To
enable this fill pattern, export the HD_FILL environment
variable.



The debug_free function sets all free memory
to a repeating 0xFB fill pattern.



 



Skipping Heap Checks



Each debug function calls _heap_check
(or _uheap_check) to check the heap.
Although this is useful, it can also increase your program's
memory requirements and decrease its execution speed. 



To reduce the overhead of checking the heap on every debug
memory management function, you can control how often the
functions check the heap with the HD_SKIP environment
variable. You will not need to do this for most of your
applications unless the application is extremely memory
intensive. 



Set HD_SKIP like any other environment variable. The
syntax for HD_SKIP is: 




    
set HD_SKIP=increment,[start]





where:






    

        increment
        Specifies how often you want the debug functions to
        check the heap.
    

    

        start
        Optional. Use this parameter to start skipping heap
        checks after start calls to debug functions.
    

    

        Note: The comma
        separating the parameters is optional.
    







When you use the start parameter to start skipping
heap checks, you are trading off heap checks that are done
implicitly against program execution speed. You should therefore
start with a small increment (like 5) and slowly increase until
the application is usable. 



For example, if you specify: 




    
set HD_SKIP=10





then every tenth debug memory function call performs a heap
check. If you specify: 




    
set HD_SKIP=5,100





then after 100 debug memory function calls, only every fifth
call performs a heap check. Other than the heap check, the debug
functions behave exactly the same as usual. 



 



Using Stack Traces



Stack contents are traced for each allocated memory object. If
the contents of an object's stack change, the traced contents are
dumped. 



The trace size is controlled by the HD_STACK
environment variable. If this variable is not set, the compiler
assumes a stack size of 10. To disable stack tracing, set the HD_STACK
environment variable to 0.







    

        

        Memory Management
        Functions

        Managing Memory
        with Multiple Memory Heaps

        Types of Memory

        Debugging Memory
        Heaps


        Creating and Using a Fixed
        Size Heap

        Creating and Using an
        Expandable Heap

        Changing the Default Heap Used
        in a Program

        Example of Creating and Using
        a User Heap

        Example of Creating and Using
        a Shared-Memory User Heap 

        


        _debug_calloc -
        Allocate and Initialize Memory

        _debug_free - Free
        Allocated Memory

        _debug_heapmin - Free
        Unused Memory in the Default Heap

        _debug_malloc -
        Allocate Memory

        _debug_memcpy - Copy
        Bytes

        _debug_memmove - Copy
        Bytes

        _debug_memset - Set
        Bytes to Value

        _debug_realloc -
        Reallocate Memory Block

        _debug_strcat -
        Concatenate Strings

        _debug_strcpy - Copy
        Strings

        _debug_strncat -
        Concatenate Strings

        _debug_strncpy - Copy
        Strings

        _debug_strnset - Set
        Characters in String

        _debug_strset - Set
        Characters in String

        _debug_ucalloc -
        Reserve and Initialize Memory from User Heap

        _debug_uheapmin - Free
        Unused Memory in User Heap

        _debug_umalloc -
        Reserve Memory Block from User Heap

        -qheapdebug

        		
        
 

        		
    










ink~ $:7,:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tumemdef.htmm$




Changing the Default Heap Used in a Program


 






    

        
Changing
        the Default Heap Used in a Program

        		
        
 

        		
    





The regular memory management functions (malloc
and so on) always use whatever heap is currently the default for
that thread. The initial default heap for all C for AIX
applications is the runtime heap provided by C for AIX. However,
you can make your own heap the default by calling _udefault.
Then all calls to the regular memory management functions
allocate from your heap instead of the runtime heap. 



The default heap changes only for the thread where you call _udefault.
You can use a different default heap for each thread of your
program if you choose. 



This is useful when you want a component (such as a vendor
library) to use a heap other than the C for AIX runtime heap, but
you can't actually alter the source code to use heap-specific
calls. For example, if you set the default heap to a shared heap
then call a library function that calls malloc,
the library allocates storage in shared memory. 



Because _udefault returns the current
default heap, you can save the return value and later use it to
restore the default heap you replaced. You can also change the
default back to the C for AIX runtime heap by calling _udefault
and specifying _RUNTIME_HEAP (defined in <umalloc.h>).
You can also use this macro with any of the heap-specific
functions to explicitly allocate from the runtime heap. 







    

        

        Memory Management
        Functions

        Managing Memory
        with Multiple Memory Heaps

        Types of Memory

        Debugging Memory
        Heaps


        Creating and Using a Fixed
        Size Heap

        Creating and Using an
        Expandable Heap

        Debugging Problems with Heap
        Memory

        Example of Creating and Using
        a User Heap

        Example of Creating and Using
        a Shared-Memory User Heap

        		
        
 

        		
    










kj!$:7,:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tumemex1.htmm$




Example of Creating and Using a User Heap


 






    

        
Example
        of Creating and Using a User Heap

        		
        
 

        		
    





The program below shows how you might create and use a
heap.



Assuming that the program file is called t.c, compile it with
the following command:




    
/usr/vac/bin/cc -qheapdebug t.c -lhu





 



#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <umalloc.h>

static void *get_fn(Heap_t usrheap, size_t *length, int *clean)
{
   void *p;

   /* Round up to the next chunk size */
   *length = ((*length) / 65536) * 65536 + 65536;
   *clean = _BLOCK_CLEAN;
   p = calloc(*length,1);
   return (p);
}

static void release_fn(Heap_t usrheap, void *p, size_t size)
{
   free( p );
   return;
}

int main(void)
{
   void    *initial_block;
   long   rc;
   Heap_t  myheap;
   char    *ptr;
   int     initial_sz;

   /* Get initial area to start heap */
   initial_sz = 65536;
   initial_block = malloc(initial_sz);
   if(initial_block == NULL) return (1);

   /* create a user heap */
   myheap = _ucreate(initial_block, initial_sz, _BLOCK_CLEAN,
                     _HEAP_REGULAR, get_fn, release_fn);
   if (myheap == NULL) return(2);


   /* allocate from user heap and cause it to grow */
   ptr = _umalloc(myheap, 100000);
   _ufree(ptr);

   /* destroy user heap */
   if (_udestroy(myheap, _FORCE)) return(3);

   /* return initial block used to create heap */

   free(initial_block);
   return 0;
}







    

        

        Memory Management
        Functions

        Managing Memory
        with Multiple Memory Heaps

        Types of Memory

        Debugging Memory
        Heaps


        Creating and Using a Fixed
        Size Heap

        Creating and Using an
        Expandable Heap

        Debugging Problems with Heap
        Memory

        Changing the Default Heap Used
        in a Program

        Example of Creating and Using
        a Shared-Memory User Heap

        		
        
 

        		
    










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VxX0Š[J?bkckԭxp"$PVE-)c;R:dDԦq)VAs~k%$5:7,:#5./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuminobj.htmm $




Minimizing the Size of Object Files


 






    

        
Minimizing
        the Size of Object Files

        		
        
 

        		
    





To minimize the size of object files, you can specify
the -qcompact option. Using this option may
increase execution time.







    

        

        -qcompact 		
        
 

        		
    










kl&$?	:7,:#?	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tumulwri.htmm$




Example of Multiple Writes to a Single Register


 






    

        
Example
        of Multiple Writes to a Single Register

        		
        
 

        		
    





 



/*
Consider a machine with a single register.
This register must be fed a sequence of four
commands in exact order to form a complete instruction.
To prevent reordering of the command sequence,
the __iospace_eieio(); function is used.

The sequence of commands is:
    1. load address
    2. low-order byte data
    3. high-order byte data
    4. load word command

Each set of instruction data needs to be synchronized.
*/
typedef unsigned long data;
#define COMMAND_REG ((volatile data *const) 0xFFFFFF20)
#define LOAD_ADDRESS 0xFFFF2000
#define LOAD_HIGH_DATA 0xFF
#define LOAD_LOW_DATA 0xA0
#define LOAD_COMMAND 0x10
void send_load_command()
{
     *COMMAND_REG=LOAD_ADDRESS;
     __iospace_eieio(); /*   ensure the stores are ordered */
     *COMMAND_REG=LOAD_LOW_DATA;
     __iospace_eieio(); /*   ensure the stores are ordered */
     *COMMAND_REG=LOAD_HIGH_DATA;
     __iospace_eieio(); /*   ensure the stores are ordered */
     *COMMAND_REG=LOAD_COMMAND;
     __iospace_eieio(); /*   ensure the stores are ordered */
}







    

        

        Example of Reading and Writing
        to Mapped-to-I/O Space


        Implementation
        Dependencies Overview

        Synchronization of
        Stores and Loads to I/O Space

        		
        
 

        		
    










Xk'$
:7,:#
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuopaex.htmm$




Examples of Operator Precedence and Associativity


 






    

        
Examples
        of Operator Precedence and Associativity

        		
        
 

        		
    





The parentheses in the following expressions
explicitly show how the compiler groups operands and operators.
If the parentheses did not appear in these expressions, the
operands and operators are grouped in the same manner as
indicated by the parentheses.




    
total = (4 + (5 * 3));

    total = (((8 * 5) / 10) / 3);

    total = (10 + (5 / 3));








Because the order of grouping operands with operators that are
both associative and commutative is not specified, the compiler
can group the operands and operators in the expression:




    
total = price + prov_tax + city_tax;





in the following ways, as indicated by the parentheses:




    
total = price + prov_tax + city_tax;

    total = price + prov_tax + city_tax;

    total = price + prov_tax + city_tax;





If the values in this expression are integers, the grouping of
operands and operators does not affect the result. Different
groupings of floating-point operators, however, may give
different results because intermediate values are rounded.






In certain expressions, the grouping of operands and operators
can affect the result. For example, in the following expression,
each of the three function calls might modify the same global
variables.




    
a = b() + c() + d();





This expression might give different results, depending on the
order in which the functions are called.






If the expression contains operators that are both associative
and commutative, and the order of grouping operands with
operators can affect the result of the expression, separate the
expression into several expressions. For example, the following
expressions could replace the previous expression if the called
functions do not produce any side effects that affect the
variable a.




    
a = b();

    a += c();

    a += d();





Integer overflows are ignored. Division by zero and
floating-point exceptions are implementation-dependent.







    

        

        Operator
        Precedence and Associativity

        


        Operator Precedence and
        Associativity Table

        		
        
 

        		
    










nk($p:7,:#p./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuoptarg.htmm$





Function Arguments


 






    

        
Function
        Arguments

        		
        
 

        		
    





Optimization is effective when function arguments are
used. It is usually better to pass a value as an argument to a
function than to let the function take the value from a global
variable. 



The #pragma
isolated_call preprocessor directive lists functions
that have no side effects. Using the pragma to list functions
that do not have side effects, that is, that do not modify global
storage, can improve the runtime performance of optimized code. 







    

        

        Program
        Optimization with the C for AIX Compiler


        Writing Optimized Code...

        Overview

        Variables

        Pointers

        Functions

        Expressions

        Critical Loops

        Conversions

        Arithmetic Constructions

        Inlined Components
        

        		
        
 

        		
    










k@)$	:7,:#	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuoptari.htmm$





Arithmetic Constructions


 






    

        
Arithmetic
        Constructions

        		
        
 

        		
    





Wherever possible, use multiplication rather than
division. For example: 




    
x*(1.0/3.0);





produces faster code than: 




    
x/3.0;





Assigning the reciprocal of the divisor to a temporary
variable and then multiplying by that variable is beneficial,
especially if you divide many values by the same number in your
code. This is attempted by the compiler when the -O3
option is specified. 







    

        

        Program
        Optimization with the C for AIX Compiler


        Writing Optimized Code...

        Overview

        Variables

        Pointers

        Functions

        Function Arguments

        Expressions

        Critical Loops

        Conversions

        Inlined Components

        


        -O

        		
        
 

        		
    










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rR0 1P@6k+$:7,:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuoptcmd.htmm $




Specifying Compiler Options on the Command Line


 






    

        
Specifying
        Compiler Options on the Command Line

        		
        
 

        		
    





Most options specified on the command line override
both the default settings of the option and options set in the
configuration file. Similarly, most options specified on the
command line are in turn overridden by options set in the source
file. Options that do not follow this scheme are listed in Resolving Conflicting Compiler
Options.



There are two kinds of command-line options: 



    
    
  • -qoption_keyword
        (compiler-specific) 
    • 
    
  • Flag options (available to compilers on AIX systems) 
    • 




 



-q Options




    





Command-line options in the -qoption_keyword
format are similar to on and off switches. If the option is
specified more than once, the last instance is recognized by the
compiler. For example, -qsource turns on the
source option to produce a compiler listing; -qnosource
turns off the source option, so no source listing is produced.
For example: 




    
xlc -qnosource MyFirstProg.c -qsource MyNewProg.c






would produce a source listing for both MyNewProg.c
and MyFirstProg.c because the last source
option specified (-qsource) takes precedence. 



You can have multiple -qoption_keyword
instances in the same command line, but they must be separated by
blanks. Option keywords can appear in either uppercase or
lowercase, but you must specify the -q in
lowercase. You can specify any -qoption_keyword
before or after the file name. For example: 




    
xlc -qLIST -qnomaf file.c
xlc file.c -qxref -qsource






Some options have suboptions. You specify these with an equal
sign following the -qoption. If the
option permits more than one suboption, a colon (:)
must separate each suboption from the next. For example: 




    
xlc -qflag=w:e -qattr=full file.c





compiles the C source file file.c using the option -qflag
to specify the severity level of messages to be reported, the
suboptions w (warning) for the minimum level of severity
to be reported on the listing, and e (error) for the
minimum level of severity to be reported on the terminal. The
option -qattr with suboption full will
produce an attribute listing of all identifiers in the program. 



 



Flag Options



The compilers available on AIX systems use a number of common
conventional flag options. The C for AIX compiler supports these
flags. Lowercase flags are different from their corresponding
uppercase flags. For example, -c and -C
are two different compiler options: -c specifies
that the compiler should only preprocess and compile and not
invoke the linkage editor, while -C can be used
with -P or -E to specify that
user comments should be preserved. 



The C for AIX compiler also supports flags directed to other
AIX programming tools and utilities (for example, the AIX ld
command). The compiler passes on those flags directed to ld
at link-edit time. 



Some flag options have arguments that form part of the flag.
For example: 




    
xlc stem.c -F/home/tools/test3/new.cfg:myc -qproclocal=sort:count





where new.cfg is a custom configuration file. 



You can specify flags that do not take arguments in one
string. For example: 




    
xlc -Ocv file.c





has the same effect as: 




    
xlc -O -c -v file.c





and compiles the C source file file.c with optimization ( -O)
and reports on compiler progress ( -v), but does
not invoke the linkage editor ( -c). 



A flag option that takes arguments can be specified as part of
a single string, but you can only use one flag that takes
arguments, and it must be the last option specified. For example,
you can use the -o flag (to specify a name for
the executable file) together with other flags, only if the -o
option and its argument are specified last. For example: 




    
xlc -Ovotest test.c





has the same effect as: 




    
xlc -O -v -otest test.c





Most flag options are a single letter, but some are two
letters. Note that -pg (extended profiling) is
not the same as -p -g
(profiling, -p, and generating debug
information, -g). Take care not to specify two
or more options in a single string if there is another option
that uses that letter combination. 







    

        

        Specifying
        Compiler Options


        Invoking the C for AIX
        Compiler 

        Specifying Compiler Options in
        Your Source Program

        Specifying Compiler Options in
        a Configuration File

        


        Resolving Conflicting
        Compiler Options

        List of Compiler
        Options and Their Defaults

        		
        
 

        		
    










gesk,$E:7,:#E./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuoptcod.htmm$




Writing Optimized Source Code


 






    

        
Writing
        Optimized Program Source Code

        		
        
 

        		
    





This page contains tips for writing code to take
advantage of the optimization features of the compiler. The
following language elements are discussed: 





You can also refer to the Optimization Guide for
Fortran, C, and C++ for more information about optimizing
and tuning your code. 







    

        

        Program
        Optimization with the C for AIX Compiler		
        
 

        		
    










" ck-$	:7,:#	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuoptcon.htmm$





Conversions


 






    

        
Conversions

        		
        
 

        		
    





Avoid forcing the compiler to convert numbers between
integer and floating-point internal representations. Conversions
require several instructions, including some double-precision
floating-point arithmetic. For example: 




    
float array[10];
float x = 1.0;
int i;
for (i = 0; i< 9; i++)  {     /* No conversions needed */
     array[i] = array[i]*x;
      x = x + 1.0;
} 
for (i = 0; i< 9; i++)        /* Multiple conversions needed */
   array[i] = array[i]*i;





When you must use mixed-mode arithmetic, code the fixed-point
and floating-point arithmetic in separate computations wherever
possible. 







    

        

        Program
        Optimization with the C for AIX Compiler


        Writing Optimized Code...

        Overview

        Variables

        Pointers

        Functions

        Function Arguments

        Expressions

        Critical Loops

        Arithmetic Constructions

        Inlined Components
        

        		
        
 

        		
    










k$.$	:7,:#	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuoptcri.htmm$





Critical Loops


 






    

        
Critical
        Loops

        		
        
 

        		
    





If your program contains a short, heavily referenced for
loop, consider expanding the code to a straight sequence of
statements. For example: 




    
array[0] = b[k+1]*c[m+1];
array[1] = b[k+2]*c[m+2];
array[2] = b[k+3]*c[m+3];
array[3] = b[k+4]*c[m+4];
array[4] = b[k+5]*c[m+5];





would run faster than: 




    
for (i = 0; i < 5; i++)
   array[i] = b[k+i]*c[m+i];





The compiler will perform automatic unrolling of inner loops
when the -O3 option is specified. In this case,
the compiler will unroll the loop once. 







    

        

        Program
        Optimization with the C for AIX Compiler


        Writing Optimized Code...

        Overview

        Variables

        Pointers

        Functions

        Function Arguments

        Expressions

        Conversions

        Arithmetic Constructions

        Inlined Components 

        


        -O

        		
        
 

        		
    










k\/$:7,:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuoptexp.htmm$





Expressions


 






    

        
Expressions

        		
        
 

        		
    





If components of an expression are duplicate
expressions, code them either at the left end of the expression
or within parentheses. For example: 




    
a = b*(x*y*z);       /* Duplicates recognized */
c = x*y*z*d;
e = f + (x + y);
g = x + y + h;
a = b*x*y*z;         /* No duplicates recognized */
c = x*y*z*d;
e = f + x + y;
g = x + y + h;





When components of an expression in a loop are constant, code
the expressions either at the left end of the expression, or
within parentheses. If c, d,
and e are constant and v, w,
and x are variable, the following examples show
the difference in evaluation: 




    
v*w*x*(c*d*e);           /* Loop invariant expressions recognized    */
c + d + e + v + w + x;
v*w*x*c*d*e;             /* Optimization required for loop invariant */
v + w + x + c + d + e;   /*       expressions to be recognized       */





For integer expressions, the loop invariant expression will be
recognized if -O is specified. For
floating-point expressions, the loop invariant expression will be
recognized if -O3 is specified. 







    

        

        Program
        Optimization with the C for AIX Compiler


        Writing Optimized Code...

        Overview

        Variables

        Pointers

        Functions

        Function Arguments

        Critical Loops

        Conversions

        Arithmetic Constructions

        Inlined Components 

        
-O

        		
        
 

        		
    










 rkF0$:7,:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuoptfun.htmm$





Functions


 






    

        
Functions

        		
        
 

        		
    





Declare nonmember functions as static
whenever possible. This will speed up calls to the function. 







    

        

        Program
        Optimization with the C for AIX Compiler


        Writing Optimized Code...

        Overview

        Variables

        Pointers

        Function Arguments

        Expressions

        Critical Loops

        Conversions

        Arithmetic Constructions

        Inlined Components
        

        		
        
 

        		
    










ized kJ1$:7,:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuoptinl.htmm$





Inlined Components


 






    

        
Using
        Inlined Components

        		
        
 

        		
    





By default, the compiler inlines certain library
functions, meaning that it replaces the function call with the
actual code for the function at the point where the call was
made. These library functions are called intrinsic or built-in
functions. 



You can also request that the compiler inline the code for
your own functions. There are benefits and drawbacks of, and
restrictions on, inlining user code. 



There are two ways to inline user code: 



    
    
  1. Use the C for AIX _inline, _Inline,
        and __inline keywords to specify which
        functions you want to have inlined. You must specify the Q
        or -qinline options to turn inlining on.
    
    2. 
    
  2. Use the -Q or -qinline
        option with a value parameter to automatically inline
        functions smaller than the value specified. 
    3. 




You should use inlining only for very small functions. See -Q
or -qinline for more information about the
inlining option. 




    

        Note: 
        Requesting that a function be inlined
        makes it a candidate for inlining but does not
        necessarily mean that the function will be inlined. In
        all cases, the compiler ultimately decides whether a
        function is inlined. 
    





 



Benefits of Inlining



Inlining user code eliminates the overhead of the function
call and linkage, and also exposes the function's code to the
optimizer, resulting in faster code performance. Inlining
produces the best results when: 



    
    
  • The overhead for the function is significant; for
        example, when functions are called within nested loops. 
    • 
    
  • The inlined function provides additional opportunities
        for optimization, such as when constant arguments are
        used. 
    • 




For example, given the following function: 




    
void glen(int a, int b)
{
   if (a == 10)
   {
      switch(b)
      {
         case 1 : .
                  :
         case 20: puts("b is 20");
                  break;
         case 30: .
                  :
         default: .
                  :
      }
   }
}





and assuming your program calls glen several times
with constant arguments, for example, glen(10, 20);,
each call to glen causes the if and switch expressions
to be evaluated. If glen is inlined, the compiler can
then optimize the function. The evaluation of the if
and switch statements can be done at compile
time, and the function code can then be reduced to only the puts
statement from case 20. 



The best candidates for inlining are small functions that are
called often. Use the Performance Analyzer or a profiler to
determine which functions to inline to obtain the best results. 



 



Drawbacks of Inlining



Inlining user code usually results in a larger executable
module because the code for the function is included at each call
site. Because of the extra optimizations that can be performed,
the difference in size may be less than the size of the function
multiplied by the number of calls. 



Inlining can also result in slower program performance,
especially if you use auto-inlining. Because auto-inlining looks
only at the number of ACUs for a function, the functions that are
inlined are not always the best candidates for inlining. As much
as possible, use the _Inline or inline
keyword to choose the functions to be inlined. 



When you use inlining, you need more stack space. When a
function is called, its local storage is allocated at the time of
the call and freed when it returns to the calling function. If
that same function is inlined, its storage is allocated when the
function that calls it is entered, and is not freed until that
calling function ends. Ensure that you have enough stack space
for the local storage of the inlined functions, in order to avoid
a stack overflow. 



 



Restrictions on Inlining



The following restrictions apply to inlining: 



If the definition and reference to a given function reside in
different files, all such files must be compiled and linked using
the -qipa compiler option. To inline across
source files, you must place the function definition (qualified
with _Inline) in a header file that is included
by all source files where the function is to be inlined. 



Turn off inlining if you plan to debug your executable module.
Inlining can make debugging difficult. For example, if you set an
entry breakpoint for a function call but the function is inlined,
the breakpoint will not work. 



The Performance Analyzer treats an inlined function as part of
the function in which it is inlined. 



A function is not inlined during an inline expansion of
itself. For a function that is directly recursive, the call to
the function from within itself is not inlined. For example,
given three functions to be inlined, A, B, and C, where: 



    
    
  1. A calls B 
    2. 
    
  2. B calls C 
    3. 
    
  3. C calls back to B 
    4. 




the following inlining takes place: 



    
    
  1. The call to B from A is inlined. 
    2. 
    
  2. The call to C from B is inlined. 
    3. 
    
  3. The call to B from C is not inlined because it is made
        from within an inline expansion of B itself. 
    4. 








    

        

        Program
        Optimization with the C for AIX Compiler


        Writing Optimized Code...

        Overview

        Variables

        Pointers

        Functions

        Function Arguments

        Expressions

        Critical Loops

        Conversions

        Arithmetic Constructions

        

        


        _Inline, _inline,
        __inline

        -Q

        		
        
 

        		
    










ain tks2$:7,:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuoptpoi.htmm$





Pointers


 






    

        
Pointers

        		
        
 

        		
    





Keeping track of pointers during optimization is
difficult and in some cases impossible. Using pointers inhibits
most memory optimization (such as dead store elimination and
store motion). 



Using the #pragma
disjoint preprocessor directive to list identifiers
that do not share the same physical storage can improve the
runtime performance of optimized code. 



Also see assert
for information on applying aliasing assertions to pointers in
your compilation unit. 







    

        

        Program
        Optimization with the C for AIX Compiler


        Writing Optimized Code...

        Overview

        Variables

        Functions

        Function Arguments

        Expressions

        Critical Loops

        Conversions

        Arithmetic Constructions

        Inlined Components

        		
        
 

        		
    










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Specifying Compiler Options In Your Program Source Files


 






    

        
Specifying
        Compiler Options in Your Program Source Files

        		
        
 

        		
    





To specify compiler options in your program source
files, use the preprocessor directive: 




    
#pragma options compiler_options
    





If you specify more than one compiler option, separate the
options using a blank space. For example:




    
#pragma options langlvl=ansi halt=s spill=1024 source





Most #pragma options directives must come
before any statements in your source program; only comments,
blank lines, and other #pragma specifications
can precede them. For example, the first few lines of your
program can be a comment followed by the #pragma
options directive: 




    
/* The following is an example of a #pragma options directive: */

    
#pragma options langlvl=ansi halt=s spill=1024 source

    
/* The rest of the source follows ... */





Options specified before any code in your source program apply
to your entire program source code. You can use other #pragma
directives throughout your program to turn an option on for a
selected block of source code. For example, you can request that
parts of your source code be included in your compiler listing: 




    
#pragma options source 

    
/*  Source code between the source and nosource #pragma
    options is included in the compiler listing                */

    
#pragma options nosource





Options specified in program source files override all other
option settings. 



These #pragma directives are listed in the
detailed descriptions of the options to which they apply. For
complete details on the other #pragma
preprocessor directives, see #pragma
Preprocessor Directives and #pragma
Preprocessor Directives for Parallel Processing.







    

        

        Specifying
        Compiler Options


        Invoking the C for AIX
        Compiler 

        Specifying Compiler Options on
        the Command Line

        Specifying Compiler Options in
        a Configuration File

        


        Resolving Conflicting
        Compiler Options

        List of Compiler
        Options and Their Defaults

        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives

        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives for Parallel Processing

        		
        
 

        		
    










 thk5$:7,:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuoptvar.htmm$





Variables


 






    

        
Variables

        		
        
 

        		
    





Use local variables, preferably automatic variables,
as much as possible. The compiler can accurately analyze the use
of local variables, but it has to make several worst-case
assumptions about global variables. These assumptions tend to
hinder optimization. For example, if you write a function that
uses external variables heavily, and that function also calls
several external functions, the compiler assumes that every call
to an external function could change the value of every external
variable. If you know that none of the function calls affects the
global variables that you are using, and you have to read them
frequently with function calls interspersed, copy the global
variables to local variables and then use these local variables.
The compiler can then perform optimization that it could not
otherwise perform. 



If you must use global variables, use static variables with
file scope rather than external variables wherever possible. In a
file with several related functions and static variables, the
optimizer can gather and use more information about how the
variables are affected. 



To access an external variable, the compiler has to make an
extra memory access to obtain the address of the variable. When
the compiler removes extraneous address loads, it has to use a
register to keep the address. Using many external variables
simultaneously takes up many registers. Those that cannot fit
into registers during optimization are spilled into memory.
Because all elements of an external structure use the same base
address, you should group external data into structures or arrays
wherever it makes sense to do so. 



The #pragma
isolated_call preprocessor directive can improve the
runtime performance of optimized code by allowing the compiler to
make less pessimistic assumptions about the storage of external
and static variables. 



Because the compiler treats register variables the same as it
does automatic variables, you do not gain anything by declaring
register variables. Note that this differs from other
implementations, where using the register attribute can greatly
affect program performance. 







    

        

        Program
        Optimization with the C for AIX Compiler


        Writing Optimized Code...

        Overview

        Pointers

        Functions

        Function Arguments

        Expressions

        Critical Loops

        Conversions

        Arithmetic Constructions

        Inlined Components

        		
        
 

        		
    

















Example of the #pragma disjoint Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
Example
        of the #pragma disjoint Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following example shows the use of #pragma
disjoint. 




    
int a, b, *ptr_a, ptr_b;

    #pragma disjoint(*ptr_a, b) // *ptr_a never points to b 

    #pragma disjoint(*ptr_b, a) // *ptr_b never points to a 

    one_function()

    { 

    b = 6;

    *ptr_a = 7; // Assignment will not change the value of b 

    another_function(b); // Argument "b" has the value
    6 

    } 





Because external pointer ptr_a does not share storage
with and never points to the external variable b, the
assignment of 7 to the object that ptr_a points to will
not change the value of b. Likewise, external pointer ptr_b
does not share storage with and never points to the external
variable a. The compiler can assume that the argument to
another_function has the value 6 and will not reload the
variable from memory. 







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        #pragma disjoint
        Preprocessor Directive

        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
 

        		
    










k>7$:7,:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tupraisx.htmm$




Example of the #pragma isolated_call Preprocessor
Directive


 






    

        
Example
        of the #pragma isolated_call Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following example shows the use of the #pragma
isolated_call directive. Because the function this_function
does not have side effects, a call to it will not change the
value of the external variable a. The argument to that_function
has the value 6.



int a, this_function(int)     /* Assumed to have no side effects */

#pragma isolated_call(this_function)

that_function()
{
    a = 6;

    this_function(7);   /* Call does not change the value of "a" */
    other_function(a);  /* Argument "a" has the value of 6       */
}







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        #pragma isolated_call
        Preprocessor Directive

        #pragma Preprocessor
        Directives

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
 

        		
    










Directik8$d:7,:#d./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuprddfx.htmm$




Example of the #define Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
Example
        of the #define Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
 

        		
    





The following program contains two macro definitions
and a macro invocation that refers to both of the defined macros:




/**
 ** This example illustrates #define directives.
 **/
 
#include <stdio.h>
 
#define SQR(s)  ((s) * (s))
#define PRNT(a,b) \
  printf("value 1 = %d\n", a); \
  printf("value 2 = %d\n", b) ;
 
int main(void)
{
  int x = 2;
  int y = 3;
 
     PRNT(SQR(x),y);
 
  return(0);
}



After being interpreted by the preprocessor, this program is
replaced by code equivalent to the following: 



#include <stdio.h>
 
int main(void)
{
  int x = 2;
  int y = 3;
 
     printf("value 1 = %d\n", ( (x) * (x) ) );
     printf("value 2 = %d\n", y);
 
  return(0);
}



This program produces the following output: 



value 1 = 4
value 2 = 3







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Macros


        #define Preprocessor
        Directive

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
 

        		
    










top"k+9$0
:7,:#0
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuprdenx.htmm$




Examples of Conditional Preprocessor Directives


 






    

        
Examples
        of Conditional Preprocessor Directives

        		
        
 

        		
    





Example 1

The following example shows how you can nest preprocessor
conditional compilation directives: 



#if defined(TARGET1)
#   define SIZEOF_INT 16
#   ifdef PHASE2
#      define MAX_PHASE 2
#   else
#      define MAX_PHASE 8
#   endif
#elif defined(TARGET2)
#   define SIZEOF_INT 32
#   define MAX_PHASE 16
#else
#   define SIZEOF_INT 32
#   define MAX_PHASE 32
#endif



 



Example 2

The following program contains preprocessor conditional
compilation directives: 



/**
 ** This example contains preprocessor
 ** conditional compilation directives.
 **/
 
#include <stdio.h>
 
int main(void)
{
   static int array[ ] = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };
   int i;
 
   for (i = 0; i <= 4; i++)
   {
      array[i] *= 2;
 
#if TEST >= 1
   printf("i = %d\n", i);
   printf("array[i] = %d\n", array[i]);
#endif
 
   }
   return(0);
}







    

        

        Conditional
        Compilation Directives


        #elif Preprocessing
        Directive

        #else Preprocessing
        Directive

        #endif Preprocessing
        Directive

        #if Preprocessing
        Directive

        #ifdef Preprocessor
        Directive

        #ifndef Preprocessor
        Directive

        		
        
 

        		
    










k::$:7,:#@./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuprdex1.htmm$




Example of Predefined Macros in a Program


 






    

        
Examples
        of Predefined Macros in a Program

        		
        
 

        		
    





Example 1

The following printf statements display the values of the
predefined macros __LINE__, __FILE__,
__TIME__, and __DATE__ and
print a message indicating the program's conformance to ANSI/ISO
standards based on __STDC__: 



/**
 ** This example illustrates some predefined macros.
 **/
 
#pragma langlvl(ANSI)
#include <stdio.h>
 
#if __STDC__
#   define CONFORM    "conforms"
#else
#   define CONFORM    "does not conform"
#endif
 
int main(void)
{
  printf("Line %d of file %s has been executed\n", __LINE__, __FILE__);
  printf("This file was compiled at %s on %s\n", __TIME__, __DATE__);
  printf("This program %s to ANSI/ISO standard C\n", CONFORM);
}



 



Example 2

The following program uses the __FUNCTION__
macro to determine the name of the program function currently in
effect.



/**
 ** This example illustrates the __FUNCTION__ predefined macro
 ** in a C program.
 **/
#include <stdio.h>
 
int foo(int);
 
main(int argc, char **argv) {
   int k = 1;
   printf (" In function %s \n",__FUNCTION__);
   foo(k);
}
 
int foo (int i) {
   printf (" In function %s \n",__FUNCTION__);
}



 



The output of this example is: 



      In function main
      In function foo







    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        Predefined Preprocessor
        Macros

        #define Preprocessor
        Directive

        #line Preprocessor
        Directive

        #undef Preprocessor
        Directive

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
 

        		
    










  WrkZ;$o
:7,:#Ao
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuprdinx.htmm$




Examples of the #include Preprocessor Directive


 






    

        
Examples
        of the #include Preprocessor Directive

        		
        
 

        		
    





Example 1

Declarations that are used by several files can be placed in one
file and included with #include in each file
that uses them. For example, the following file defs.h contains
several definitions and an inclusion of an additional file of
declarations: 




    
/* defs.h */
#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0
#define BUFFERSIZE 512
#define MAX_ROW 66
#define MAX_COLUMN 80
int hour;
int min;
int sec;
#include "mydefs.h"





You can embed the definitions that appear in defs.h with the
following directive: 




    
#include "defs.h"





The preprocessor looks for the file defs.h
first in the directory that contains the source file. If the file
is not found there, the preprocessor searches a sequence of
specified or standard locations. 



Example 2

In the following example, a #define combines
several preprocessor macros to define a macro that represents the
name of the C standard I/O header file. A #include
makes the header file available to the program. 




    
#define  IO_HEADER   <stdio.h>
      .
      .
      .
#include IO_HEADER   /* equivalent to specifying #include <stdio.h> */
      .
      .
      .










    

        

        Preprocessor
        Directives


        #include Preprocessor
        Directive

        List of Preprocessor
        Directives

        		
        
 

        		
    










rkn]<$:7,:#B./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuprehdr.htmm$




Creating and Using Precompiled Headers


 






    

        
Creating
        and Using Precompiled Headers

        		
        
 

        		
    





You can improve your compile time by using precompiled
headers. Use the -qgenpcomp and -qusepcomp
compiler options to create and maintain precompiled header files
for your application. 



If you use these two options consistently, a precompiled
header file is created if it does not exist, and used if it does
exist. When a source file is changed, the precompiled version is
automatically regenerated. 



The compiler generates a single precompiled object for the
first initial sequence of #include directives.
The next time you compile, this single object can be used
wherever that initial sequence appears. Since the precompiled
object is only used in cases where the context is the same (same
language, same beginning sequence of #include
directives, compatible options and macro definitions), the
precompiled object does not have to be reinterpreted every time
it is included. 



To get the most benefit from this new method, use the same
initial sequence of headers wherever possible. The more files
that share the same initial sequence, the greater the improvement
in your compile time. 



You can specify different names or directories for precompiled
header files with the -qgenpcomp and -qusepcomp
compiler options. This allows you to create more than one initial
sequence, and further improve your compile time. 



When you use precompiled header files, the following
restrictions apply: 



    
    
  • To create a precompiled header file, the compiler process
        must have write permission to the directories you
        specify, or to the current working directories if none
        are specified. 
    • 
    
  • To use a precompiled header, the compiler process must
        have read permission for that file. 
    • 
    
  • Precompiled header files do not appear in any listing
        files. 
    • 








    

        

        #include

        -qgenpcomp

        -qusepcomp 		
        
 

        		
    










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Setting Up the C for AIX Compilation Environment


 






    

        
Setting
        Up the C for AIX Compilation Environment

        		
        
 

        		
    





Before you compile your C programs, you must set up
the environment variables and the configuration file for your
application. 



 



Setting Environment Variables to Select 64- or 32-bit
Compilation Modes



The OBJECT_MODE environment variable, if it exists, can set
the default compilation mode. Permissible values for the
OBJECT_MODE environment variable are:




    

        

            
32

            		
            Sets the compiler to generate and/or
            use 32-bit objects.
        

        

            
64

            		
            Sets the compiler to generate and/or
            use 64-bit objects.
        

        

            
32_64

            		
            Sets the compiler to accept both 32-
            and 64-bit objects. The compiler never functions in
            this mode, and using this choice may generate an
            error message, depending on other compilation options
            set at compile-time.
        

    





See Specifying Compiler Options for
Architecture-Specific, 32- or 64-bit Compilation for more
information.



 



Setting Parallel Processing Run-time Options



The XLSMPOPTS environment variable sets options for programs
using loop parallelization. For example, to have a program
run-time create 4 threads and use dynamic scheduling with chunk
size of 5, you would set the XLSMPOPTS environment variable as
shown below:




    
XLSMPOPTS=PARTHDS=4:SCHEDULE=DYNAMIC=5





Additional environment variables set options for program
parallelization using OpenMP-compliant directives.



See IBM Run-time Options for
Parallel Processing and OpenMP
Run-time Options for Parallel Processing for more
information.



 



Setting Environment Variables for the Message and Help Files



Before using the compiler, you must install the message
catalogs and help files and set the following two environment
variables: 




    

        

            
LANG

            		
            Specifies the national language for
            message and help files. 
        

        

            
NLSPATH

            		
            Specifies the path name of the
            message and help files. 
        

    





The LANG environment variable can be set to
any of the locales provided on the system. See the description of
locales in AIX General Programming Concepts for IBM RISC
System/6000 for more information. 



The national language code for United States English is en_US.
If the appropriate message catalogs have been installed on your
system, any other valid national language code can be substituted
for en_US. 



To determine the current setting of the national language on
your system, use the both of the following echo
commands: 




    
echo $LANG

    echo $NLSPATH





The LANG and NLSPATH
environment variables are initialized when the operating system
is installed, and might differ from the ones you want to use. 



You use different commands to set the environment variables
depending on whether you are using the Bourne shell (bsh or
sh), Korn shell (ksh), or C
shell (csh). To determine the current shell, use
the echo command: 




    
echo $SHELL





The Bourne-shell path is /bin/bsh or /bin/sh.
The Korn shell path is /bin/ksh. The C-shell
path is /bin/csh. 



For more information about the NLSPATH and LANG
environment variables, see AIX Version 4 System User's
Guide: Operating System and Devices. The AIX international
language facilities are described in the AIX General
Programming Concepts for IBM RISC System/6000. 



 



Setting Environment Variables in bsh, ksh, or sh Shells



To set the environment variables from the Bourne shell or Korn
shell, use the following commands: 




    
LANG=en_US
NLSPATH=/usr/lib/nls/msg/%L/%N:/usr/lib/nls/msg/%N
export LANG NLSPATH





To set the variables so that all users have access to them,
add the commands to the file /etc/profile. To
set them for a specific user only, add the commands to the file .profile
in the user's home directory. The environment variables are set
each time the user logs in. 



 



Setting Environment Variables in csh Shell



To set the environment variables from the C shell, use the
following commands: 




    
setenv LANG en_US
setenv NLSPATH /usr/lib/nls/msg/%L/%N:/usr/lib/nls/msg/%N





In the C shell, you cannot set the environment variables so
that all users have access to them. To set them for a specific
user only, add the commands to the file .cshrc
in the user's home directory. The environment variables are set
each time the user logs in. 







    

        

        Specifying Compiler Options
        for Architecture-Specific, 32- or 64-bit Compilation

        IBM Run-time Options
        for Parallel Processing

        OpenMP Run-time Options
        for Parallel Processing		
        
 

        		
    










kH?$:7,:#H./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/compiler/tasks/tuslcpar.htmm$




Interlanguage Calls - Parameter Passing


 






    

        
Interlanguage
        Calls - Parameter Passing

        		
        
 

        		
    





The RISC System/6000 linkage convention specifies the
methods for parameter passing and whether return values are to be
in FPRs, GPRs, or both. The GPRs and FPRs available for argument
passing are specified in two fixed lists: R3-R10 and FP1-FP13. 



Prototyping affects how parameters are passed and whether
widening occurs: 




    
Nonprototyped functions 

    
In nonprototyped functions in the C language,
        floating-point arguments are widened to double
        and integral types are widened to int. 

    

    
Prototyped functions 

    
No widening conversions occur except in arguments passed
        to an ellipsis function. Floating-point double
        arguments are only passed in FPRs. If an ellipsis is
        present in the prototype, floating-point double
        arguments are passed in both FPRs and GPRs. 





When there are more argument words than available parameter
GPRs and FPRs, the remaining words are passed in storage on the
stack. The values in storage are the same as if they were in
registers. Space for more than 8 words of arguments (float and
nonfloat) must be reserved on the stack even if all the arguments
were passed in registers. 



The size of the parameter area is sufficient to contain all
the arguments passed on any call statement from a procedure
associated with the stack frame. Although not all the arguments
for a particular call actually appear in storage, they can be
regarded as forming a list in this area, each one occupying one
or more words. 



The methods of passing parameters are as follows: 



    
    
  • In C, all function arguments are passed by value, and the
        called function receives a copy of the value passed to
        it. 
    • 
    
  • In Fortran, by default, arguments are passed by
        reference, and the called function receives the address
        of the value passed to it. You can use the %VAL
        Fortran built-in function to pass by value. Refer to the AIX
        XL Fortran Compiler/6000 User's Guide for more
        information about using %VAL and
        interlanguage calls. 
    • 
    
  • In Pascal, the function declaration determines whether a
        parameter is expected to be passed by value or by
        reference. 
    • 








    

        

        Interlanguage Calling
        Conventions

        Corresponding Data Types

        Using the Subroutine Linkage
        Conventions in Interlanguage Calls

        Sample Program: C Calling
        Fortran		
        
 

        		
    










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Using the Subroutine Linkage Conventions in Interlanguage
Calls


 






    

        
Using
        the Subroutine Linkage Conventions in Interlanguage Calls

        		
        
 

        		
    





The subroutine linkage conventions describes
the machine state at subroutine entry and exit. Routines that are
compiled separately in the same or different languages are linked
when the programs are linked, and run when called. The AIX
Version 4 Assembler Language Reference describes the
Subroutine Linkage Convention in detail. 



The RISC System/6000 linkage convention provides fast and
efficient subroutine linkage between languages. It specifies how
parameters are passed, taking full advantage of the large number
of floating-point registers (FPRs) and general-purpose registers
(GPRs), and minimizes the saving and restoring of registers on
subroutine entry and exit. 









    

        

        Interlanguage Calling
        Conventions

        Corresponding Data Types

        Sample Program: C Calling
        Fortran		
        
 

        		
    










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Distributed Debugger: Overview





Distributed Debugger: Overview



The IBM Distributed Debugger is a client/server application that enables you to detect
and diagnose errors in your programs. This client/server design makes it possible to debug
programs running on systems accessible through a network connection as well as debug
programs running on your workstation.



The debugger server, also known as a debug engine, runs on the same system
where the program you want to debug runs. This system can be your workstation or a system
accessible through a network. If you debug a program running on your workstation, you are
performing local debugging. If you debug a program running on a system accessible
through a network connection, you are performing remote debugging.
 


The debugger client is a graphical user interface where you can issue commands used by
a debug engine to control the execution of your program. For example, you can set
breakpoints, step through your code and examine the contents of variables. The debugger
user interface lets you debug multiple applications written in different languages from a
single debugger session. Each program you debug is shown on a separate page with a tab on
each page displaying program identification information such as the name of the program
being debugged. The type of information displayed depends on the debug engine that you are
connected to.



Each program page is divided into different sections, called panes. Each pane
displays different information about your program. There are panes to display your source
code, breakpoints, the program's call stack and various monitors. The types of panes and
monitors available on a program page depend on the program you are debugging.



For more information on the panes and monitors available in the debugger user
interface, see the related topics below.



ngrelc.gif (533 bytes)

Distributed Debugger: Panes

Distributed Debugger: Monitors

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)Remote
debugging





k꦳D$1	:7,:#Q1	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/concepts/cbcdbpan.htm$




Distributed Debugger: Panes





Distributed Debugger:  Panes



The types of panes displayed when debugging a program depend on the programming
language used. The following panes are available in the debugger user interface:



Stacks pane



The Stacks pane provides a view of the call stack for each thread in the program you
are debugging. Each thread in your program appears as a node in a tree list. Expanding a
node will display the names of active functions for that thread.
 


Breakpoints pane



The Breakpoints pane contains a view of information about the breakpoints you have set
in the program you are debugging. Use the Breakpoints pane to view breakpoints set in your
program, modify their properties, delete them, or add new ones.
 


Source pane



The Source pane provides a view of the source code for the program you are debugging.
If your program was compiled with debugging information, you have three choices as to how
to view it: by its source code, its disassembled machine code, or a combination of the
two.  To view source code, the source code file must be accessible from your
workstation, either on a local or a network drive. If the source code file is not found,
only a disassembled machine code view is available.
 


Modules pane
 


The Modules pane displays a list of modules loaded while
running your program. The items in the list can be expanded to show compile units, files
and functions.
 


The remaining panes are monitor panes. For more information on monitor panes, see the
related topic below.



[Related Concepts]

Distributed Debugger: Monitors

Distributed Debugger: Overview





pane
dkVE$i:7,:#Ri./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/concepts/cbcrecur.htm$




Recursion and debugging





Recursion and debugging



Recursion does not have to involve a routine calling itself
directly; for example: FUNC1 calls FUNC2 calls FUNC3 calls FUNC1. After the call to FUNC3,
each time you step into one of these routines, the entry for that call shows a recursion
count one higher than the previous entry for that call.



You can use the recursion value in the stack frame properties box to detect
unintentionally recursive calls.



Limits to debugging recursive function calls



Only the copy of the variables from the most recent invocation of a function can be
monitored. Variables from previous invocations of the recursive function cannot be
monitored.





>




Breakpoints





Breakpoints



Breakpoints are temporary markers you place in your executable program to tell
the debugger to stop your program whenever execution reaches that point. For example, if a
particular statement in your program is causing problems, you could set a breakpoint on
the line containing the statement, then run your program. Execution stops at the
breakpoint before the statement is executed. You can then check the contents of variables,
registers, storage, and the stack, then step over (execute) the statement to see how the
problem arises.



The debugger supports the following types of breakpoints:
 


    
  
  • Line breakpoints are triggered before the code at a particular line in
    a program is executed.
    • 
  
  • ngclang.gif (151 bytes)ngcpp.gif (202 bytes)Function breakpoints
    are triggered when the function they apply to is reached. 
    •  
  
  • Storage change breakpoints are triggered when the storage within a
    particular address range is changed.
    
    ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)Storage change breakpoints are
    not available when debugging programs running on AIX.
    • 
  
  • Load occurrence breakpoints are triggered when a DLL is loaded.
    • 
  
  • ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)Address breakpoints
    are triggered before the disassembly instruction at a particular address is
    executed.
    • 







Related Tasks

Setting a line breakpoint

ngclang.gif (151 bytes) ngcpp.gif (202 bytes) Setting
a function breakpoint

Setting a storage change breakpoint

Setting a load occurrence breakpoint

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)Setting an address breakpoint





/imakG$W:7,:#TW./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/concepts/cbwdoptc.htm$



Optimized code debugging (AIX or Windows only)





Optimized code debugging



ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)Restriction: This
is supported on AIX and Windows only.



Problems that only surface during optimization are often an indication of logic errors
or compile errors that are exposed by optimization, for example using a variable that has
not been initialized. If you encounter an error in your program that only occurs in the
optimized version, you can usually find the cause of the error using a binary search
technique to find the failing module:
 


    
  
  1. Begin by optimizing half the modules and see if the error persists. 
    2. 
  
  2. After each change in the number of optimized modules, if the error persists, optimize
    fewer modules; if the error goes away, optimize more modules. Eventually you will have
    narrowed the error down to a single module or a small number of modules. 
    3. 
  
  3. Debug the failing module. If possible, turn off the instruction scheduling optimizations
    for that module. Look for problems such as reading from a variable before it has been
    written to, and pointers or array indices exceeding the bounds of storage allocated for
    the pointer or array.
    4. 




When you debug optimized code, information in debugger panes may lead you to suspect
logic problems that do not actually exist. You should bear in mind the points below:



Local variables are not always current



Do not rely on the Local variables monitor to show the current values of variables.
Numeric values,  character values and pointers may be kept in processor registers. In
the optimized program, these values and pointers are not always written out to memory; in
some cases, they may be discarded because they are not needed.



Static and external variables are not always current



Within an optimized function, the values of static or external variables are not always
written out to memory. 



Registers and Storage monitors are always current



The Registers and Storage monitors are correct. Unlike a monitor that shows actual
variables, such as the Locals Variables monitor, the Registers and Storage monitors are
always up-to-date as of the last time execution stopped.



Source statements may be optimized away



Use the disassembly view or mixed view to see the source for your program. You may
find, for example, that an assignment to a variable in your source code does not result in
any disassembly code being produced; this may indicate that the variable's value is never
used after the assignment.





kH$:7,:#U./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/concepts/cbwexec.htm$




exec() handling (AIX and OS/390)





exec() handling 



Restriction: ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ng390.gif (394 bytes)This
is supported on AIX and OS/390 only.



When a process calls exec(), a new program is loaded to replace the
current program.



ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)The
debugger suspends program execution at this point and opens a dialog similar to the Load
Program dialog, which allows you to choose whether to debug program initialization and
whether to use a program profile. The name of the new program is shown, but unlike in the
Load Program dialog, you cannot change the name. After you select OK, the debugger
stops at the first instruction of the new program's runtime (if you asked to debug program
initialization), or at the first instruction or statement in the new program.
 


If you checked Use program profile and the debugger finds enabled breakpoints in
the profile, these breakpoints are set when you start debugging the child process.



Related References

fork() handling

system() handling







k6I$":7,:#V"./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/concepts/cbwfork.htm$




fork() handling (AIX and OS/390)





fork() handling 



ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ng390.gif (394 bytes)Restriction: This
is supported on AIX and OS/390 only.



When a process calls fork(), an exact copy of that process is created. The
process that forked is called the parent, and the new process is called the child. If a
process being debugged forks, the debugger stops both the parent and child processes, and
opens a dialog box that lets you choose whether to continue debugging the parent process
or switch to the child process.



Whichever choice you make (Parent or Child), the debugger ignores the
process you did not choose, and allows it to continue running. Breakpoints set in
the process you did not choose are ignored, and the page pertaining to that process is
closed. Execution stops at the next source code statement in the program that contains
debugging information.



If the process you did not choose performs an exec(), a new debugger
page will open for the new child process.



Related References

exec() handling

system() handling





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When to attach (AIX and Windows only)





When to attach



ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)Restriction:
Attaching to a running process is only supported on AIX and Windows NT.
 


There are two main reasons for attaching the debugger:
 


    
  
  • You anticipate a problem at a particular point in your program, and you do not want to
    step through the program or set breakpoints. In this situation, you can run your program,
    and at a program pause shortly before the anticipated failure (for example, while the
    program is waiting for keyboard input), you attach the debugger. You can then provide the
    input, and debug from that point on.
    • 
  
  • You are developing or maintaining a program that hangs sporadically, and you want to
    find out why it is hanging. In this situation, you can attach the debugger, and look for
    infinite loops or other problems that might be causing your program to hang.
    • 

 


ngaix.gif (1051 bytes) You can
also use postmortem debugging to debug a core file containing information on the state of
an application when it trapped. Postmortem debugging is available when debugging locally
only.



ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)Attaching to a local running
process

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)Attaching to a remote running
process





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Remote debugging (AIX and Windows only)





Remote debugging

 


Debugging a program running on one system while controlling the program from another
system is known as remote debugging. The debugger supports remote debugging by allowing
you to run the debugger user interface on one system, while running the debug engine on
another system. The system running the debugger user interface is known as the local
system. The system where the debug engine runs is known as the remote system.



There are two types of remote debugging: homogeneous and heterogeneous.
Homogeneous remote debugging occurs when both the local and remote system use the same
operating system. Heterogeneous remote debugging is when the local and remote systems use
different operating systems.



When debugging a program remotely, you can start the debugger in one of two ways:
 


    
  
  • Start a debug engine daemon, then start the debugger user interface.
    • 
  
  • Start a debugger user interface daemon, then start a debug engine.
    • 




In both cases, a daemon will listen for a connection. Once a connection is made you can
begin to debug your program.



Why use remote debugging

You might want to use remote debugging for the following reasons:
 


    
  
  • The program you are debugging is running on another user's system, and is behaving
    differently on that system than on your own. You can use the remote debug feature to debug
    this program on the other system, from your system. The user on the system running that
    program interacts with the program as usual (except where breakpoints or step commands
    introduce delays) and you are able to control the program and observe the program's
    internal behavior from your system. 
    • 
  
  • It is easier to debug an application that uses graphics or has a graphical user
    interface when you keep the debugger user interface separate from that of the application.
    Your interaction (or another user's interaction) with the application occurs on the remote
    system, while your interaction with the debugger occurs on the local system.
    • 
  
  • The program you are debugging was compiled for a platform that the debugger user
    interface does not run on. You can use the remote debug feature to take advantage of the
    debugger user interface while debugging the remote application.
    • 




ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)Starting the debugger for
remote debugging

Starting the debugger user interface daemon



ngrelr.gif (548 bytes)

Remote debugging limits





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system() handling(AIX and OS/390 only)





system() handling 



ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ng390.gif (394 bytes)Restriction: This
is supported on AIX and OS/390 only.



When a program running in a UNIX environment starts another program using a call to system(),
the system() function calls both fork() and exec().
The following describes the debugger's behavior after you perform a Step Over
command on a line containing a system() call, and tells you what actions you
should take to begin debugging the child process.
 


    
  
  1. The system() function calls fork(). The debugger stops
    execution and raises a Process fork action dialog. 
    2. 
  
  2. At this point you should choose to debug the child process. Once the Process fork action
    dialog closes, issue the Run command to continue debugging the child
    process.
    3. 
  
  3. The new child process calls exec() to load /bin/sh, and the
    debugger opens a New process dialog. The active debugger Source pane shows a disassembly
    view of the initial runtime entry point of /bin/sh.
    4. 
  
  4. Click on OK to start debugging the child process.
    5. 
  
  5. The debugger stops in the main function of /bin/sh.
    6. 
  
  6. Issue the Run command.
    7. 
  
  7. The /bin/sh process issues a fork() call. Again, the debugger
    stops and brings up a Fork action dialog.
    8. 
  
  8. At this point you should choose to debug the Child process. Once the Process fork
    action dialog closes, issue the Run command to continue debugging the
    child process.
    9. 
  
  9. The new child process calls exec() to load the program specified in the
    call to system() in the original program. The debugger opens a New process
    dialog. The active debugger Source pane shows a disassembly view of the initial runtime
    entry point of the program specified in the call to system().
    10. 
  
  10. Click on OK. The debugger stops at main(). From here you can
    continue debugging normally.
    11. 




ngrelr.gif (548 bytes)

exec() handling

fork() handling





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Remote debugging limits





Remote debugging limits



Remote debugging imposes the following limitations:
 


    
  
  • Browse only displays the file system on the local system. The file
    system on the remote system cannot be displayed.
    • 




ngrelc.gif (533 bytes)







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C++ supported data types





C++ supported data types   



You can monitor an expression that includes a cast to any of the
following types:
 


    
  
  • 8-bit signed byte
    • 
  
  • 8-bit unsigned byte
    • 
  
  • 16-bit signed integer
    • 
  
  • 16-bit unsigned integer
    • 
  
  • 32-bit signed integer
    • 
  
  • 32-bit unsigned integer
    • 
  
  • 64-bit signed integer
    • 
  
  • 64-bit unsigned integer
    • 
  
  • 32-bit floating-point
    • 
  
  • 64-bit floating-point
    • 
  
  • Single-precision floating-point
    • 
  
  • Double-precision floating-point
    •  
  
  • Pointers
    • 
  
  • User-defined types 
    • 




These data types include int, short, char and so on.





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C++ supported expression operands





C/C++ supported expression operands



You can monitor an expression that uses the following types of
operands only: 




  

    Operand
    Definition
  

  

    Variable
    A variable used in your program.
  

  

    Constant
    The constant can be one of the following types: 
    
      
  • Fixed-point or floating-point constant within the ranges supported by the system the
        program you are debugging is running on. 
    • 
      
  • A string constant, enclosed in double quotation marks (for example, "mystring")
    • 
      
  • A character constant, enclosed in single quote marks (for example, 'x')
    • 
    

    		
  

  

    ngaix.gif (1051 bytes) ngos2.gif (402 bytes) ngwin.gif (1069 bytes) Register
    Any of the processor registers that can be
    displayed in the Registers Monitor. In the case of conflicting names, program variable
    names take precedence over register names. For conversions that are done automatically
    when the registers display in mixed-mode expressions, general-purpose registers are
    treated as unsigned arithmetic items with a length appropriate to the register. For
    example, on Intel platforms EAX is 32-bits, AX is 16-bits, and AL is 8-bits.
  





If you monitor an enumerated variable, a comment appears to the right of the value. If
the value of the variable matches one of the enumerated types, the comment contains the
name of the first enumerated type that matches the value of the variable. If the length of
the enumerated name does not fit in the monitor, the contents appear as an empty entry
field.



The comment (empty or not) lets you distinguish between a valid enumerated value and an
invalid value. An invalid value does not have a comment to its right.



You cannot update an enumerated variable by entering an enumerated type. You
must enter a value or expression. If the value is a valid enumerated value, the comment to
the right of it is updated.



You cannot look at variables that have been defined using the #define
preprocessor directive.





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DER_DBG_PATH environment variable





DER_DBG_PATH environment variable



The DER_DBG_PATH environment variable is used to locate debug source files on your client workstation that
are not stored in the same location as the executable being debugged. For example, if your debug executable is stored in F:\BUILDS\SANDDUNE\TEST but
your source code is stored in F:\SOURCE and
F:\SOURCE\INCLUDE, you should set your DER_DBG_PATH variable as follows: 



set DER_DBG_PATH=F:\SOURCE;F:\SOURCE\INCLUDE



You can set the DER_DBG_PATH environment variable on
both client and server systems. The search for source files starts on the server first.
 


The search order used to search for source files depends on the settings of other
environment variables as well.



ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Setting environment variables for the debugger





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INCLUDE environment variable





INCLUDE workstation environment variable   



The INCLUDE environment variable is used by the debugger to
locate include files on the workstation.



The environment variable does not apply to languages that do not support include files.



ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Setting environment variables for the debugger





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LIBPATH environment variable (AIX and OS/2)





LIBPATH environment variable 



ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngos2.gif (402 bytes)Restriction: This
is supported on AIX and OS/2 only.



The LIBPATH environment variable tells the debug engine where to look for debugger DLLs
on the workstation.





 hrkj~$:7-:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/ref/rbwlocpt.htmm$




DER_DBG_LOCAL_PATH environment variable (AIX and Windows only)





DER_DBG_LOCAL_PATH environment variable 



ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)Restriction: This
is supported on AIX and Windows only.



 ngaix.gif (1051 bytes) ngwin.gif (1069 bytes) The DER_DBG_LOCAL_PATH environment
variable is used to locate executables and DLLs on the system where you are debugging your
program.
 


ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Setting environment variables for the debugger





./.kꄢ$:7-:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/ref/rbwnumel.htmm$




DER_DBG_NUMBEROFELEMENTS environment variable





DER_DBG_NUMBEROFELEMENTS workstation environment variable



The DER_DBG_NUMBEROFELEMENTS environment variable can be set
to an integer value to tell the debugger the maximum number of elements to display for an
array, structure, or object in a Program or Storage monitor.



ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Setting environment variables for the debugger





ok$:7-:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/ref/rbwopunx.htmm$




Compiler Options on Workstation UNIX Platforms





Compiler options on workstation UNIX platforms



Compile your programs with the -g option (to generate
debugging information) if you want to be able to debug your program at the source code
statement level. You should also consider using the following options: 



  
Option

  
Purpose

  
-qnoopt

  
Compiles your program with optimization off. This is the default. (Some optimizations
    reorder the execution sequence of your program, while others may eliminate expressions
    whose result is never used. You may find it confusing to debug a program compiled with
    optimization, because statements may execute in a nonsequential fashion or not at all.)

  
-Q!

  
Compiles your program with inlining off. This is the default.





Note: If you use the -bstabcmpct linker option when compiling
programs that use DirectToSom or C++ namespaces, you should only specify a value of 1 (the
default) or 0 (for example, -bstabcmpct:0) for versions of the program you intend to
debug. If you specify -bstabcmpct:2 you will not be able to debug such programs.





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DER_DBG_OVERRIDE environment variable (AIX and Windows only) 





DER_DBG_OVERRIDE environment variable 



ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)Restriction:  This
is supported on AIX and Windows only.



The DER_DBG_OVERRIDE environment variable takes precedence over DER_DBG_PATH. If you
set your DER_DBG_PATH variable in your system settings, but you want to temporarily add
another path that takes precedence over DER_DBG_PATH, set DER_DBG_OVERRIDE. To restore
DER_DBG_PATH as the path used to locate executables and DLLs, clear DER_DBG_OVERRIDE. You
can clear DER_DBG_OVERRIDE using the following command: 



set DER_DBG_OVERRIDE=



ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Setting environment variables for the debugger



Related References

DER_DBG_PATH environment variable





ܠ·%kD$<:7-:#<./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/ref/rbwpath.htmm$




Other environment variables





Other environment variables 



ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)Restriction: This
information applies to debugging programs on AIX and Windows only.



The debugger also uses the following standard environment variables on the Windows or OS/2 workstation. These variables all contain one or more
directory names separated by semicolons:



PATH



The PATH environment variable is used to locate the debugger executable  and the executable programs to be debugged, as well as any other
executables being run on the workstation. On Windows platforms the PATH environment
variable is also used to locate DLLs.




ngos2.gif (402 bytes)DPATH



The DPATH environment variable is used to locate message files, which the debugger
needs to display messages and the text of menus and dialogs.




ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Setting environment variables for the debugger



ngrelr.gif (548 bytes)

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes) ngos2.gif (402 bytes) LIBPATH
environment variable






۔k2t$:7-:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/ref/rbwstep.htmm$




Step commands





Step commands  
 
 



You can use step commands to step through your program a single line
or where supported disassembly instruction at a time. You can issue step commands from the
Source pane that contains the current execution point.



The following types of step commands are available: 




  

    Step Command 
    Button 
    Shortcut
    Description 
  

  

    Step Over
    nbstpovr.gif (108 bytes)
    Ctrl+O
    Executes the current line, without stopping in any functions or routines called within
    the line.
  

  

    ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)ngos400.gif (321 bytes)Step Into
    nbstpint.gif (110 bytes)
    Ctrl+I
    Executes the current line. If the current line contains a call to a function or
    routine, execution stops in the first line or disassembly instruction of the called
    function or routine. If the called function or routine was not compiled with debug
    information, the function or routine is shown in a disassembly view.
  
 
  

    ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)ngos400.gif (321 bytes)Step Debug 
    nbstpdbg.gif (112 bytes)
    Ctrl+D
    Executes the current line. Execution stops at the next line encountered for which
    debug information is available. This could be in the current function or routine, in the
    called function or routine, or in a function or routine called within the called function
    or routine.
  

  

    Step Return
    nbstprtn.gif (112 bytes)
    Ctrl+T
    Executes from the current execution point up to the line immediately following the
    line that called this function or routine. If you issue a Step Return command from the
    main entry point (in C++, the main program), the program runs to
    completion.
  





Execution of your program may stop earlier than indicated in the step command
descriptions, if the debugger encounters a breakpoint or an exception occurs. 
 


You can use combinations of step commands to step through multiple calls on a single
line.



ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Stepping through a program





k\$:7-:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/ref/rbwtgrid.htmm$




DER_DBG_TABGRID environment variable





DER_DBG_TABGRID environment variable



The DER_DBG_TABGRID environment variable affects how the
debugger uses tab characters to align tabs to columns in a source or
mixed view within a Source pane. The value of this variable is an integer
indicating the starting position and frequency of the tab. For example, if you set
DER_DBG_TABGRID=6, the debugger sets tab stops at 6, 12, 18, 24, and so on. If
DER_DBG_TABGRID is set to a nonzero value, the setting of DER_DBG_TAB has no effect.



ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Setting environment variables for the debugger



Related References

DER_DBG_TAB environment variable





 routkd$s:7-:#s./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/ref/rbwvcase.htmm$




DER_DBG_CASESENSITIVE environment variable





DER_DBG_CASESENSITIVE workstation environment variable



The DER_DBG_CASESENSITIVE environment variable, if set to a non-null value (for
example, "yes", 1, "true", etc.) tells the debugger to compare part
names and module names on a case-sensitive basis. By default the debugger converts all
names to uppercase for comparison purposes. Note that this does not affect filesystem
accesses which are operating system dependent and not affected by DER_DBG_CASESENSITIVE. 



ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Setting environment variables for the debugger





ment k$:7-:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/ref/rbwvdbtb.htmm$




DER_DBG_TAB environment variable





DER_DBG_TAB environment variable



The DER_DBG_TAB environment variable affects how the debugger
expands tab characters in a source or mixed view within a
Source pane. The value for this variable is an integer, indicating the number of spaces to
convert a tab character into. Unlike DER_DBG_TABGRID, DER_DBG_TAB does not cause the
debugger to place tabbed information in specific columns; it simply results in each tab in
the displayed files being converted to the indicated number of spaces.



Note:  If DER_DBG_TABGRID has been set to a nonzero value, the
setting of DER_DBG_TAB has no effect.



ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Setting environment variables for the debugger



Related References

DER_DBG_TABGRID environment variable





51" k$	:7-:#	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbcaddreg.htmm$




Adding a register to the Expressions monitor





Adding a register to the Expressions monitor 
 

 


You can add a register to the Expressions monitor if you want to monitor only a few
registers during the execution of your program. Registers can also be monitored in the
Registers pane and Storage pane. To monitor all registers during program execution, use
the Registers pane. 



To add a register to the Monitors pane:
 


    
  
  1. Click on the Monitors tab and do one of the following:
      
      
    • Select Monitors > Monitor Expression from the menu bar.
      • 
      
    • Press Shift+F9.
      • 
    
    
  
    2. 
  
  2. In the dialog, enter the name of the register you want to monitor. Check the Registers
    pane to see a valid Registers name. 
    3. 
  
  3. Select Program Monitor.
    4. 
  
  4. Click OK to add the register to the Expressions monitor and dismiss the
    dialog.
    5. 




To add multiple registers to the Expressions monitor:
 


    
  
  1. Click on the Expressions tab and do one of the following:
      
      
    • Select Monitors > Monitor Expression from the menu bar.
      • 
      
    • Press Shift+F9.
      • 
    
    
  
    2. 
  
  2. In the dialog, enter the register you want to monitor.
    3. 
  
  3. Click Monitor to add the register to the monitor.
    4. 
  
  4. Repeat step 2 until you have added all the registers you want to monitor.
    5. 
  
  5. Click Cancel to dismiss the dialog.
    6. 




ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Viewing the contents of a register

Creating a new storage monitor for an expression or register






kP$
:7-:#
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbcaddvar.htmm$




Adding a variable to the Expressions monitor





Adding a variable to the Expressions monitor 
 




From the Source pane or the Monitors menu, you can add variables and expressions to the
Expressions monitor, so that you can keep track of how their contents change during
program execution. You can add multiple variables and expressions to the Expressions
monitor from the Monitors menu.



Local variables that are in scope can also be monitored in the Local Variables monitor.
By default, all of the local variables in scope are available in the Locals Variables
monitor. 



To add a variable or expression to the Expressions monitor from the Source pane:
 


    
  
  1. Ensure the Source pane is set to source view. To set the Source pane to a source view,
    select Source > Source View from the menu bar.
    2. 
  
  2. Highlight the variable or expression you want to monitor.
    3. 
  
  3. Right-click on the highlighted variable, and select Add to Program Monitor
    from the pop-up menu.
    4. 




To add a variable or expression to the Expressions monitor from the Monitors menu:
 


    
  
  1. Select Monitors > Monitor Expression from the menu bar.
    2. 
  
  2. In the dialog, enter the variable, expression, or register you want to monitor.
    3. 
  
  3. Select the Program Monitor check box.
    4. 
  
  4. Click OK to add the variable to the monitor and dismiss the dialog.
    5. 




To add multiple variables or expressions to
the Expressions monitor from the Monitors menu:
 


    
  
  1. Select Monitors > Monitor Expression from the menu bar.
    2. 
  
  2. In the dialog, enter the variable, expression, or register you want to monitor.
    3. 
  
  3. Click Monitor to add the variable to the monitor.
    4. 
  
  4. Repeat step 2 until you have added all the variables you want to monitor.
    5. 
  
  5. Click Cancel to dismiss the dialog.
    6. 




ngclang.gif (151 bytes) ngcpp.gif (202 bytes) To view the contents of a
C or C++ variable such as an integer in a Storage monitor, precede the variable with an
ampersand (&), or select a pointer that points to that variable. For example, given
the following C or C++ source code:



int i=10;
int* p=&i;



you can monitor the storage for the variable i by
entering either &i or p in the Monitor expression dialog,
then selecting the Storage monitor radio button in that dialog.



Related References

C++ supported data types

C++ supported expression operands

C++ supported expression operators





in tk)$	:7-:#	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbcbpdel.htmm$




Deleting a breakpoint





Deleting a breakpoint  



You can delete single breakpoints from the Source pane and the Breakpoints pane. All
breakpoints can be deleted at once from the Breakpoints menu. If you delete a breakpoint,
all information on it is lost. If do not want to lose your breakpoint information, but do
not want the breakpoint to stop execution, disable the breakpoint instead. For information
on disabling breakpoints, see the related task below.



To delete a single breakpoint in the Source pane:
 


    
  
  1. Locate the breakpoint you want to delete by using the scroll bar or cursor keys to
    locate the line where the breakpoint is set.
    2. 
  
  2. Do one of the following to delete the breakpoints:
      
      
    • Double-click on the line number in the prefix area of the line to delete the breakpoint.
      • 
      
    • Right-click on the breakpoint and select Delete Breakpoint from the
        pop-up menu.
      • 
    
    
  
    3. 




To delete a single breakpoint in the Breakpoints pane:
 


    
  
  1. Click on the Breakpoints tab to bring the Breakpoints pane to the
    foreground.
    2. 
  
  2. In the Breakpoints pane, expand the list of breakpoints by clicking on the plus icons (nbplus.gif (851 bytes)) until you see the breakpoint you
    want to delete.
    3. 
  
  3. Right-click on the breakpoint you want to delete. This brings forth a pop-up menu.
    4. 
  
  4. Select Delete Breakpoint from the pop-up menu.
    5. 




To delete all breakpoints, select Breakpoints > Delete All Breakpoints
from the menu bar.



If you want to temporarily prevent all breakpoints from stopping execution, disable
them instead by selecting Breakpoints > Disable All Breakpoints.



Related Tasks

Enabling and disabling breakpoints





1" heik&$:7-:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbcbpead.htmm$




Enabling and disabling breakpoints





Enabling and disabling breakpoints     



You can disable a breakpoint so that it does not stop execution, and then later enable
it again. Information about the breakpoint (such as type, location, condition, and
frequency) is saved by the debugger when the breakpoint is disabled. Since this is not
true when the breakpoint is deleted, the advantage of disabling a breakpoint instead of
deleting it is that it is easier to enable a breakpoint than to recreate it. Enabled
breakpoints are indicated with a red dot (Brakpt.gif (97 bytes)). Disabled breakpoints are indicated with a gray dot (BrkptDis.gif (97 bytes)).



You can enable or disable line breakpoints from the Breakpoints pane. Also, you can
enable or disable line breakpoints from the Source pane.



To enable or disable a single breakpoint from the Breakpoints pane:
 


    
  
  1. Click on the Breakpoints tab to bring the Breakpoints pane to the
    foreground.
    2. 
  
  2. In the Breakpoints pane, expand the list of breakpoints until you see the breakpoint you
    want to enable or disable.
    3. 
  
  3. Right-click on the breakpoint you want to enable or disable. This brings forth a pop-up
    menu.
    4. 
  
  4. Select Enable Breakpoint or Disable Breakpoint from
    the pop-up menu.
    5. 




To enable or disable a line breakpoint from the Source pane:
 


    
  
  1. Ensure the Source pane is set to source view. To set the Source pane to a source view,
    select Source > Source View.
    2. 
  
  2. Scroll to the line where the breakpoint you want to enable or disable is by using the
    scroll bar or cursor.
    3. 
  
  3. Right-click on the line you want to enable or disable the breakpoint on. This brings
    forth a pop-up menu.
    4. 
  
  4. Select Enable Breakpoint or Disable Breakpoint from
    the pop-up menu.
    5. 




To enable all breakpoints, select Breakpoints > Enable All Breakpoints
from the menu bar.



To disable all breakpoints, select Breakpoints > Disable All Breakpoints
from the menu bar.



Related Tasks

Deleting a breakpoint





sk:$:7-:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbcbplst.htmm$




Setting multiple breakpoints





Setting multiple breakpoints    



You can set several breakpoints with the same optional parameters from any of the
breakpoint dialogs.



To set multiple occurrences of a type of breakpoint:
 


    
  
  1. Select the type of breakpoints you want to set from either the Source menu
    or the Breakpoints menu.
    2. 
  
  2. From the breakpoint dialog, enter the required information for the first breakpoint.
    Change any fields in the Optional Parameters section of the dialog, as desired.
    3. 
  
  3. Click on Set. The settings are saved for the current breakpoint.
    4. 
  
  4. For each additional breakpoint, change the information for the new breakpoint (for
    example, the new line number, new function, new method, new entry point, or new address)
    and click on Set.
    5. 
  
  5. After you have set the last breakpoint, click on Cancel to dismiss the dialog.
    6. 




ngrelc.gif (533 bytes)

Breakpoints



Related Tasks

Modifying breakpoint properties

Enabling and disabling breakpoints

Deleting a breakpoint

Viewing set breakpoints





from tk$	:7-:#	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbcchrep.htmm$


Changing the representation of monitor contents





Changing the representation of monitor contents



You can change the representation of variables and expressions in the Monitors pane,
Locals pane or Registers pane. You can change the representation for existing entries or
the default representation for future entries in the Applications Preferences dialog.



To change the representation of a variable or expression in the Monitors pane, Locals
pane, or Registers pane:
 


    
  
  1. Right-click on the variable or expression you want to change the representation of.
    2. 
  
  2. Select Representation from the pop-up menu. The Monitor Representation
    dialog appears.
    3. 
  
  3. Select the representation you want from the list of available representations.
    4. 
  
  4. Click OK to change the representation and dismiss the Monitor
    Representation dialog.
    5. 




To change the default representation of variables or expressions in the Monitors pane,
Locals pane, or Registers pane:
 


    
  
  1. Select File > Preferences from the main menu bar. The Application
    Preferences dialog appears.
    2. 
  
  2. In the left-hand pane of the Application Preferences dialog, go to Debug > program
    > Default Monitor Representation, where program is the name of a
    program loaded in the debugger you want to change the default representation for.
    3. 
  
  3. Change the representations for variable types by clicking on the representation
    associated with a variable type and selecting a representation from the list.
    4. 
  
  4. If you want these representations to become the default for the debugger to use when no
    program profile is available, click Debugger Defaults.
    5. 
  
  5. Click OK to change the default representations and dismiss the
    Application Preferences dialog.
    6. 




The default representations of variables and expressions in programs you have
previously debugged will not be affected by these changes. 





-k$|:7-:#|./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbcdaem.htmm$


Starting the debugger user interface daemon





Starting the Distributed Debugger user interface daemon



Start the Distributed Debugger user interface in daemon mode if you want the debugger
user interface to appear only after you have started a debug engine.



To start the Distributed Debugger user interface daemon,  issue the following
command at a command line prompt:



idebug -qdaemon -quiport=<port>



where <port> is the port number where you want the debugger user
interface daemon to listen for a debug engine.



When you start the debug engine that will connect to this
daemon, you must specify the same port number in the -qport option of the irmtdbgc
command used to start the debug engine.
 


ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)Starting the debugger for local
debugging

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)Starting the debugger for remote
debugging



ngrelr.gif (548 bytes)

idebug command

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)irmtdbgc command





ion k֢$R:7-:#R./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbcflyov.htmm$


Enabling hover help for variables





Enabling hover help for variables



Hover help for variables provides you with a quick way to view the contents of
variables in the Source pane. When you point at a variable, a pop-up appears displaying
the contents of that variable. This feature is enabled by default when you first start the
debugger.



To enable hover help for variables, select Source > Allow Tool Tip
Evaluation from the menu bar. 



A check mark will appear next to the Allow Tool Tip Evaluation menu item to indicate
that hover help for variables is enabled.



To enable hover help for variables as the default:
 


    
  
  1. Select File > Preferences from the main menu.
    2. 
  
  2. Select Debug from the list of preferences to set.
    3. 
  
  3. Select Allow Tool Tip Evaluation from the Debugger Defaults
    section.
    4. 
  
  4. Click OK to enable the tool tip monitor and dismiss the dialog.
    5. 




ngrelc.gif (533 bytes)

Distributed Debugger: Monitors





trmt.hk갉$6:7-:#6./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbcmxead.htmm$



Enabling and disabling a monitored expression





Enabling and disabling a monitored expression 
     



You can disable the monitoring of a variable, expression or register. The advantage of
disabling a monitored expression instead of deleting it is that it is easier to enable a
monitored expression than to recreate it.



You can enable or disable monitored expressions from either the Program or Locals
monitor pane.



To enable or disable a monitored expression:
 


    
  
  1. Locate the expression you want to disable or enable in the Program or Locals pane.
    2. 
  
  2. Right-click on the expression you want to enable or disable.
    3. 
  
  3. Select Enable or Disable from the pop-up menu.
    4. 






mgktU$
:7-:#
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbcnewstr.htmm$




Creating a new Storage monitor for an expression or register





Creating a new Storage monitor for an expression
or register
 


Tip: If there is a variable in scope which
has the same name as the register that you are trying to use, the variable will be used
first. 



Registers can also be monitored in the Registers pane and Expressions pane. To monitor
all registers during program execution, use the Registers pane.



You may want to create a new Storage monitor pane for an expression or register if you
want to monitor specific locations in storage or only a few registers during the
execution. To monitor all locations in storage during program execution, use the Storage
pane.



To create a new Storage pane for an expression or register from the Registers pane:
 


    
  
  1. Highlight the register you want to create the new Storage monitor for.
    2. 
  
  2. Right-click on the highlighted expression and select Add Storage Monitor
    from the pop-up menu. A new Storage monitor pane will appear with the expression appearing
    in the monitor's tab.
    3. 




To create a new Storage pane for an expression from the Monitors pane:
 


    
  
  1. Click on the Monitors tab and do one of the following:
      
      
    • Select Monitors > Monitor Expression from the menu bar.
      • 
      
    • Press Shift+F9.
      • 
    
    
  
    2. 
  
  2. In the dialog, enter the expression or register that you want to monitor.
    3. 
  
  3. Select Storage Monitor.
    4. 
  
  4. Click OK to create the new Storage monitor.
    5. 
  
  5. A new Storage pane will appear with the expression or register appearing in the
    monitor's tab.
    6. 




To create multiple new Storage pane from the Monitors pane:
 


    
  
  1. Click on the Monitors tab and do one of the following:
      
      
    • Select Monitors > Monitor Expression from the menu bar.
      • 
      
    • Press Shift+F9.
      • 
    
    
  
    2. 
  
  2. In the dialog, enter the first expression or the name of the register that you want to
    monitor. Check the Registers pane to see a valid Registers name. 
    3. 
  
  3. Select Storage Monitor.
    4. 
  
  4. Click Monitor to create the new Storage monitor pane for the expression
    or register entered.
    5. 
  
  5. Repeat step 2 until you have added all the storage locations or registers that you want
    to monitor.
    6. 
  
  6. Click Cancel to dismiss the dialog.
    7. 




ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Changing the representation of storage contents

Changing the contents of a storage location

Viewing a location in storage





tkf$:7-:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbcrnapg.htmm$




Running a program





Running a program  



You can have a program run until an active breakpoint is hit or you can have a program
run to a specific line number.



To run a program until an active breakpoint is hit, do one of the following:
 


    
  
  • Click the run button (nbrun.gif (113 bytes)).
    • 
  
  • Select Debug > Run from the menu bar.
    • 
  
  • Press F5.
    • 




To run a program to a specific line number:
 


    
  
  1. Ensure the Source pane is set to source view. To set the Source pane to a source view,
    select Source > Source View from the menu bar.
    2. 
  
  2. Make sure the line to run to is visible in the Source pane by using the scroll bar or
    cursor keys to locate the line.
    3. 
  
  3. Run the program to the line by doing one of the following:
      
      
    • Right-click on the line to bring up the pop-up menu, then select Run To Location.
      • 
      
    • Click on the line to select it, then select Debug > Run To Location
        from the menu bar.
      • 
      
    • Click on the line to select it, then press Ctrl+F10.
      • 
    
    
  
    4. 




ngrelc.gif (533 bytes)

Breakpoints



Related Tasks

Stepping through a program

Setting multiple breakpoints

Modifying breakpoint properties

Enabling and disabling breakpoints

Deleting a breakpoint

Viewing set breakpoints








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Setting a load occurrence breakpoint





Setting a load occurrence breakpoint    
 


Load occurrence breakpoints halt execution of your program when the DLL or dynamically
loaded module specified is loaded into memory. You can set load occurrence breakpoints
from the Breakpoints menu.



To set a load occurrence breakpoint from the Breakpoints menu:
 


    
  
  1. Select Breakpoints > Set Load Occurrence from the menu bar.
    2. 
  
  2. Enter the name of the DLL or dynamically loaded module to set the breakpoint for.
    3. 
  
  3. Set any optional parameters that you want for the breakpoint.
    4. 
  
  4. Click OK to set the breakpoint and dismiss the Load Occurrence
    Breakpoint dialog. Alternatively, use the Set button to set the
    breakpoint without dismissing the Load Occurrence Breakpoint dialog.
    5. 




[Related Concepts]

Breakpoints



Related Tasks

Setting multiple breakpoints

Modifying breakpoint properties

Enabling and disabling breakpoints

Deleting a breakpoint

Viewing set breakpoints





8Kk$Q
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./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbcsetwa.htmm$



Setting a storage change breakpoint





Setting a storage change breakpoint
 


Storage change breakpoints halt execution of your program whenever storage at a
specific address is written to. 
 


You can set storage change breakpoints from the Breakpoints menu.



To set a storage change breakpoint from the Breakpoints menu:
 


    
  
  1. Select Breakpoints > Set Storage Change from the menu bar.
    2. 
  
  2. Enter an address or expression that evaluates to an address in the Address or Expression
    field.
    
    ngclang.gif (151 bytes)ngcpp.gif (202 bytes) Tip: You can enter
    the address of a variable by specifying the variable name preceded by an ampersand
    (&).
    3. 
  
  3. Select the Bytes to Monitor check box.
    4. 
  
  4. Set any optional parameters that you want for the breakpoint.
    5. 
  
  5. Click OK to set the breakpoint and dismiss the Storage Change
    Breakpoint dialog. Alternatively, use the Set button to set the
    breakpoint without dismissing the Storage Change Breakpoint dialog.
    6. 




Caution: If you set a storage change breakpoint for an address that is
on the call stack, be sure to remove the breakpoint before leaving the routine associated
with it. Otherwise, when you return from the routine, the routine's stack frame will be
removed from the stack, but the breakpoint will still be active. Any other routine that
gets loaded on the stack will then contain the breakpoint.



[Related Concepts]

Breakpoints



Related Tasks

Setting multiple breakpoints

Modifying breakpoint properties

Enabling and disabling breakpoints

Deleting a breakpoint

Viewing set breakpoints





_.^4ok@$L:7-:#L./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbcsetxp.htmm$


Selecting debugger recognized exceptions 






Selecting debugger recognized exceptions 



You can select the exceptions the debugger recognizes for processes you are debugging,
so that stepping or execution will stop when one of the selected exceptions is thrown. By
default, all unhandled exceptions are recognized by the debugger.



To select the exceptions recognized by the debugger:
 


    
  
  1. Select File > Preferences from the menu bar.
    2. 
  
  2. Expand the Debug item in the left-hand window of the Application
    Preferences dialog.
    3. 
  
  3. Locate the process you want to set the exceptions recognized for.
    4. 
  
  4. Click on Exception Filter Preferences Settings.
    5. 
  
  5. Check the exceptions you want the debugger to recognize or uncheck exceptions you want
    the debugger to ignore.
    6. 
  
  6. Click OK to close the Application Preferences dialog.
    7. 




To cancel your exception filter preferences settings, click Reset.



To set your exception filter preference to the default settings, click Default



To set your new exception filter preferences as the default, check the Debugger
Defaults box before clicking OK.



 





hangk$O
:7-:#O
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbcstep.htmm$




Stepping through a program





Stepping through a program   
 



You can use step commands to step through your program a single
statement at a time. The statements can be source code or, where applicable, disassembly
instructions. You can issue step commands from the source pane that contains the current
execution point. For an explanation of the step commands, see the related topic below.



To execute a Step Over command, do one of the following:
 


    
  
  • Click the step over button (Step Over) on the toolbar.
    • 
  
  • Select Debug > Step Over from the menu bar.
    • 
  
  • Press F10.
    • 




To execute a Step Into command, do one of the following:
 


    
  
  • Click the step into button (Step Into) on the toolbar.
    • 
  
  • Select Debug > Step Into from the menu bar.
    • 
  
  • Press F11.
    • 




ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)To execute a Step Debug command, do
one of the following:
 


    
  
  • Click the step debug button (Step Debug) on the toolbar.
    • 
  
  • Select Debug > Step Debug from the menu bar.
    • 
  
  • Press F7.
    • 




To execute a Step Return command, do one of the following:
 


    
  
  • Click the set return button (Step Print) on the toolbar.
    • 
  
  • Select Debug > Step Return from the menu bar.
    • 
  
  • Press Shift+F11.
    • 

 


ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Running a program



ngrelr.gif (548 bytes)

Step commands






kX$A
:7-:#A
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbcvumem.htmm$




Viewing a location in storage





Viewing a location in storage    
 


You can view the contents of storage from the Storage pane or from a new Storage
monitor pane that you have created.



To view the contents of storage from the Storage pane:
 


    
  
  1. If necessary, change the representation of the storage contents in the Storage pane.
    2. 
  
  2. If necessary, use the scroll bar in the Storage pane to view storage locations above or
    below the starting address of the Storage pane.
    3. 
  
  3. You can jump directly to an address in the Storage pane by doing the following:
      
      
    • Double-click on any address field in the Storage pane.
      • 
      
    • Enter the address you want the view to jump to. This address can be an expression, for
        example &x.
      • 
      
    • Press Enter. The storage contents now seen in the Storage pane are centered around the
        address you just entered.
      • 
    
    
  
    4. 




To view the contents of storage from a Storage pane that you have created:
 


    
  
  1. If necessary, change the representation of the storage contents in the Storage pane.
    2. 
  
  2. If necessary, use the scroll bar in the Storage pane to view storage locations above or
    below the starting address of the Storage pane.
    3. 
  
  3. You can jump directly to an address in the Storage pane by doing the following:
      
      
    • Double-click on any address field in the Storage pane.
      • 
      
    • Enter the address you want the view to jump to.
      • 
      
    • Press Enter. The storage locations now seen in the Storage pane are centered around the
        address you just entered.
      • 
    
    
  
    4. 
  
  4. Use the Go to Address button to return to the starting address of the
    Storage monitor pane.
    5. 




ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Changing the representation of storage contents

Changing the contents of a storage location

Creating a new Storage monitor for an expression or register





dy>




Viewing the contents of a register





Viewing the contents of a register   

 


You can view the contents of a register from the Registers pane, the Monitors pane if
you have added the register there, or a Storage monitor pane if you have added the
register there.



To view the contents of a register in the Registers pane:
 


    
  
  1. Expand the thread for which you want to view the registers.
    2. 
  
  2. Expand the register category that contains the register you want to view.
    3. 
  
  3. If necessary, use the scroll bars or PageUp and PageDown keys to scroll the pane until
    the register is visible.
    4. 




To view the contents of a register you have already added to
the Monitors pane:  
 


    
  
  1. If necessary, use the scroll bars or PageUp and
    PageDown keys to scroll the Monitors pane until the register is visible.
    2. 
  
  2. If necessary, change the representation of the register: right-click on the register and
    select a representation from the Monitor Representation menu.
    3. 




To view the contents of a register you have already added to a Storage pane:
 


    
  
  1. If necessary, use the scroll bars or PageUp and PageDown keys to scroll the Storage pane
    until the register is visible.
    2. 
  
  2. If necessary, change the representation of the register: right-click on the register and
    select a representation from the Monitor Representation menu.
    3. 




Related Tasks

Creating a new storage monitor for an expression or register

Adding a register to the Expressions monitor





esekH$
:7-:#
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbcvuvar.htmm$




Viewing the contents of a variable





Viewing the contents of a variable   




You can view the contents of a variable in the Locals pane or the Monitors pane, if you
have added the variable there. 



To view the contents of a variable in the Locals pane:
 


    
  
  1. Expand the thread in the Locals pane where the local variable you want to view appears.
    2. 
  
  2. If necessary, use the scroll bars or PageUp and PageDown keys to scroll the pane until
    the variable is visible.
    3. 
  
  3. If your variable is a class, struct or array, it can be expanded to show its individual
    elements.
    4. 
  
  4. If necessary, change the representation of the variable: right-click on the variable and
    select a representation from the Monitor Representation menu.
    5. 




To view the contents of a
variable you have already added to the Monitors pane:
 


    
  
  1. Use the scroll bars or PageUp and PageDown keys to scroll the pane until the variable is
    visible.
    2. 
  
  2. If your variable is a class, struct or array, it can be expanded to show its individual
    elements.
    3. 
  
  3. If necessary, change the representation of the variable: right-click on the variable and
    select a representation from the Monitor Representation menu.
    4. 




If a variable is not in scope, a message displays
in the Monitors pane instead of a value. 
 


You can also view the contents of variables in the Source pane with hover help. To
enable hover help, see the related task below.



Related Tasks

Enabling hover help for variables

Adding a variable to the Monitors pane

Viewing a location in storage





ok$}:7-:#}./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbcvwbp.htmm$




Viewing set breakpoints





Viewing set breakpoints  



A list of breakpoints you have set is kept in the Breakpoints pane for
the process you are debugging. This list is originally collapsed and can be expanded to
show your installed breakpoints. The list of breakpoints is divided into the types of
breakpoints you may have set (line, function, method, address, load occurence, and
storage change breakpoints). Expanding each type of breakpoint will provide you with a
list of installed breakpoints for that type.



To view the list of installed breakpoints:
 


    
  
  1. Click on the Breakpoints tab for the process you are debugging.
    2. 
  
  2. Expand or collapse the list of breakpoints to display the breakpoints you want to see.
    3. 




To view the properties of a breakpoint, right-click on the desired breakpoint and
select Breakpoint Properties from the pop-up menu.



ngrelc.gif (533 bytes)

Breakpoints



ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Setting multiple breakpoints

Modifying breakpoint properties

Enabling and disabling breakpoints

Deleting a breakpoint

Viewing set breakpoints





_pmkF9$
:7-:#
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/debugger/tasks/tbwatloc.htmm$



Attaching to a local running process (AIX and Windows NT Only)





Attaching to a local running process

 


You can attach the debugger to a running process either by using the Process List
dialog or from a command line by using the -a option of the idebug
command. See the related topic below on when to attach to a running process.



To attach the debugger to running process with the Process List dialog:
 


    
  
  1. Select File > Attach Process to invoke the Process List dialog.
    2. 
  
  2. Select the process you want to attach from the Select Process list.
    3. 
  
  3. If the Process Path field is enabled, enter the full path name to the
    executable associated with the process you want to attach.
    4. 
  
  4. Click Attach.
    5. 




To attach the debugger to a running process from a command line, enter the following
command:



ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)idebug
-a<process_id>
 


where <process_id> is a valid process id on your system.



Important: Do not attach to operating system processes or to the
debugger's own process. Attaching to such processes can cause unpredictable results.



If you are currently debugging a process, that process is terminated when the new
process is attached. When you exit the debugger, any attached process is also terminated.



You cannot restart a program that you have attached to.



ngrelc.gif (533 bytes)

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)When to attach



ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)Attaching to a remote running process



ngrelr.gif (548 bytes)

idebug command





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Setting a deferred breakpoint





Setting a deferred breakpoint    



A deferred breakpoint is a breakpoint set on a DLL or executable that is not currently
loaded. You can defer the following types of breakpoints:
 


    
  
  • line breakpoints
    • 
  
  • function breakpoints
    • 
  
  • method breakpoints
    • 




To set a deferred breakpoint, click on Defer breakpoint check box when
setting your line breakpoint, your function, or your method breakpoint. Set any optional
parameters that you want for the breakpoint.



ngrelc.gif (533 bytes)

Breakpoints



Related Tasks

Setting multiple breakpoints

Modifying breakpoint properties

Enabling and disabling breakpoints

Deleting a breakpoint

Viewing set breakpoints





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Modifying breakpoint properties 





Modifying breakpoint properties  



You can change the following properties of a breakpoint:
 


    
  
  • Which threads the breakpoint applies to.
    • 
  
  • How often the debugger should skip the breakpoint (the frequency).
    • 
  
  • Whether to stop on the breakpoint only when a given expression is true. Expressions can
    only be applied to line, function, method, procedure, or address breakpoints.
    • 
  
  • Whether to defer the breakpoint. Only line, function, or method breakpoints can be
    deferred.
    • 




You can also change the Required parameters fields for a breakpoint. Changing
these fields results in the existing breakpoint being deleted and a new breakpoint being
set.



To change a breakpoint's properties:
 


    
  
  1. Click on the Breakpoints tab to bring the Breakpoints pane to the
    foreground.
    2. 
  
  2. In the Breakpoints pane, expand the list of breakpoints until you see the breakpoint you
    want to modify.
    3. 
  
  3. Right-click on the breakpoint you want to modify. This brings forth a pop-up menu.
    4. 
  
  4. Select Modify Breakpoint from the pop-up menu. A breakpoint dialog
    corresponding to the breakpoint type appears displaying the current settings for the
    breakpoint.
    5. 
  
  5. Change the breakpoint's properties in the Breakpoint dialog.
    6. 




[Related Concepts]

Breakpoints



Related Tasks

Setting multiple breakpoints

Enabling and disabling breakpoints

Deleting a breakpoint

Viewing set breakpoints





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Changing the contents of a register





Changing the contents of a register   

 


To change the contents of a register in the Registers pane or the Monitors pane:
 


    
  
  1. In the Registers pane or the Monitors pane, expand the entry where the register whose
    value you want to change is.
    2. 
  
  2. Scroll down to the register you want to change and do one of the following:
      
      
    • Double-click on the register.
      • 
      
    • Select Edit from the pop-up menu.
      • 
    
    
  
    3. 
  
  3. Enter a value that is valid for the current representation of that register. The
    debugger checks for a valid value. Depending on the language and platform, you may be able
    to change literal strings.
    4. 
  
  4. Press Enter to submit the change.
    5. 




ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Viewing the contents of a register

Adding a register to the Expressions monitor





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Changing the contents of a storage location





Changing the contents of a storage location
 


To change the contents of a storage location in a Storage monitor:
 


    
  
  1. Select the Storage monitor pane where you want to make the change.
    2. 
  
  2. Scroll down to the storage location you want to change.
    3. 
  
  3. Double-click on the value you want to change.
    4. 
  
  4. Enter a valid value for that storage location. The debugger checks for a valid
    value.
    
    ngclang.gif (151 bytes)ngcpp.gif (202 bytes)For example, if you want to change
    the contents of storage, and the Content style setting for a particular Storage monitor is
    32-bit integer, the value you enter must be a valid 32-bit integer, not a floating-point
    value or other value.
    5. 






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Changing the contents of a variable





Changing the contents of a variable
 


To change the contents of a variable in a Locals pane or Monitors pane:
 


    
  
  1. Expand the monitor containing the variable whose value you want to modify.
    2. 
  
  2. If your variable is a class, struct or array, expand it to show its individual elements.
    3. 
  
  3. Scroll down to the variable you want to change and do one of the following:
      
      
    • Double-click on the variable or variable element.
      • 
      
    • Right-click on the variable and select Edit from the pop-up menu.
      • 
    
    
  
    4. 
  
  4. Enter a value that is valid for the current representation of that variable or variable
    element. The debugger checks for a valid value.
    
    ngclang.gif (151 bytes)ngcpp.gif (202 bytes)For example, if you want to change
    the contents of a character string and the current representation is a text string, you
    must enter a new string in double quotes, and the length of the string must not exceed the
    declared array size.
    5. 
  
  5. Press Enter to submit the change.
    6. 




ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Adding a variable to the Expressions monitor





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Changing the representation of storage contents





Changing the representation of storage contents    
 


For each storage pane you have, you can change the representation of the storage and
the number of columns shown in each pane.



These settings affect only the Storage pane or Storage monitor pane you are viewing, so
you can have multiple Storage monitor panes with different settings.



Select the representation of storage for the Storage pane you are viewing from the Content
style pulldown menu.



Select the number of columns shown in a Storage pane from the Columns Per Line
pulldown menu.





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Compiling a program for debugging





Compiling a program for debugging
 


In order to debug your program at the source code level, you need to compile your
program with certain compiler options that instruct the compiler to generate symbolic
information in the object file. See your compiler reference documentation on how to
compile your program with debug information.



Related Tasks

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)Optimized code debugging

Writing a program for debugging





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Setting a function breakpoint





Setting a function breakpoint
 


You can set function breakpoints from the Modules pane, the Source menu and the
Breakpoints menu.



To set a function breakpoint from the Modules pane:
 


    
  
  1. Expand the list in the Modules pane until you see the function you want to set an
    function breakpoint on.
    2. 
  
  2. Right-click on that function and select Set Function breakpoint from the pop-up
    menu.
    3. 




To set a function breakpoint from the Source menu:
 


    
  
  1. Select Source > Set Function Breakpoint from the menu bar.
    2. 
  
  2. Enter the name of the function you want to debug in the Function entry
    field in the Function Breakpoint dialog. If this function is loaded, you can select it
    from the pulldown list in the Function entry field.
    3. 
  
  3. If the executable or DLL containing the function you want to debug is not currently
    loaded, click on the Defer breakpoint check box.
    4. 
  
  4. Set any optional parameters that you want for the breakpoint.
    5. 
  
  5. Click OK to set the breakpoint and dismiss the Function Breakpoint
    dialog. Alternatively, use the Set button to set the breakpoint without
    dismissing the Function Breakpoint dialog.
    6. 




To set a function breakpoint from the Breakpoints menu:
 


    
  
  1. Select Breakpoints > Set Function from the menu bar.
    2. 
  
  2. Enter the name of the executable you want to debug in the Executable entry
    field in the Function Breakpoint dialog. If this executable to be debugged is loaded, you
    can select it from the pulldown list in the Executable entry field.
    3. 
  
  3. Choose or enter the object, class or source file you want to debug from the Source
    pulldown list.
    4. 
  
  4. Enter the name of the function you want to debug in the Function entry
    field in the Function Breakpoint dialog. If this function is loaded, you can select it
    from the pulldown list in the Function entry field.
    5. 
  
  5. If the module or routine you entered in the Executable entry field is
    not currently loaded, click on the Defer breakpoint check box.
    6. 
  
  6. Set any optional parameters that you want for the breakpoint.
    7. 
  
  7. Click OK to set the breakpoint and dismiss the Function Breakpoint
    dialog. Alternatively, use the Set button to set the breakpoint without
    dismissing the Function Breakpoint dialog.
    8. 




ngrelc.gif (533 bytes)

Breakpoints



Related Tasks

Setting multiple breakpoints

Modifying breakpoint properties

Enabling and disabling breakpoints

Deleting a breakpoint

Viewing set breakpoints





line.



Halting execution of a program (AIX and Windows only) 





Halting execution of a program 



Halting a program stops the execution of the program without
terminating the execution of the program. It allows you to pause and examine the program's
internal state and then continue execution without restarting the program. 



To halt execution of a program that is currently running in the debugger, do one of the
following:
 


    
  
  • Click on nbhalt.gif (126 bytes).
    • 
  
  • Select Debug > Halt from the menu bar.
    • 




You may find that execution halts in a function other than the one you are debugging
(for example, a system library routine). To run to the end of that routine and stop in
your own code, do one of the following:
 


    
  
  • Issue a Step Return command.
    • 
  
  • If the previous technique results in the debugger displaying the message "Cannot
    determine return address", issue the Step Debug command until execution returns to
    your code
    • 
  
  • If you know what line in your program will be the next to execute after the current
    function returns, go to the source pane containing that line, set a breakpoint on it, and
    issue the Run command.
    • 

 


ngrelc.gif (533 bytes)

Step commands



Related Tasks

Running a program

Stepping through a program

Setting a line breakpoint





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Restarting a program (AIX and Windows only)





Restarting a program 
 


To start debugging your program from the beginning if your program is stopped, click on
nbrestrt.gif (179 bytes) in the toolbar or select
Debug > Restart from the menu bar.



To start debugging your program again from the beginning, if your program is not
stopped:
 


    
  
  1. Issue a Halt command by clicking on nbhalt.gif (126 bytes) in the toolbar or selecting Debug > Halt
    from the menu bar, if the program is currently executing within the debugger.
    2. 
  
  2. Set a breakpoint at the location you want to run to, if it is not the beginning of your
    program and you have not already set a breakpoint there.
    3. 
  
  3. Click on nbrestrt.gif (179 bytes) in the
    toolbar or select Debug > Restart from the menu bar.
    4. 




If the previous run of your program produced side effects such as the creation of an
output file and the program logic will be changed by the existence of such files from a
previous debug session, you may want to erase these files before restarting.



Related Tasks

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)Halting execution of a program

Running a program





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Setting an address breakpoint (AIX and Windows) 





Setting an address breakpoint 



ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)Restriction: This
is supported for AIX and Windows only.
 


You can set an address breakpoint from the Source pane, the Source menu, and from the
Breakpoints menu. 



To set an address breakpoint in the Source pane:
 


    
  
  1. Ensure the Source pane is set to a disassembly or mixed view. To set the Source pane to
    a disassembly view, select Source > Disassembly View. To set the
    Source pane to a mixed view, select Source > Mixed View.
    2. 
  
  2. Make sure the appropriate line is visible in the pane by using the scroll bar or cursor
    keys to locate the line.
    3. 
  
  3. Double-click on the line number in the prefix area of the line.
    4. 




To set an address breakpoint from the Source menu:
 


    
  
  1. Select Source > Set Address Breakpoint from the menu bar.
    2. 
  
  2. Enter either the address where you want to set the breakpoint or an expression that
    evaluates to an address. The address must be entered in hexadecimal notation.
    3. 
  
  3. Set any optional parameters that you want for the breakpoint.
    4. 
  
  4. Click OK to set the breakpoint and dismiss the Address Breakpoint
    dialog. Alternatively, use the Set button to set the breakpoint without
    dismissing the Address Breakpoint dialog.
    5. 




To set an address breakpoint from the Breakpoints menu:
 


    
  
  1. Select Breakpoints > Set Address from the menu bar.
    2. 
  
  2. Enter either the address where you want to set the breakpoint or an expression that
    evaluates to an address. The address must be entered in hexadecimal notation.
    3. 
  
  3. Set any optional parameters that you want for the breakpoint.
    4. 
  
  4. Click OK to set the breakpoint and dismiss the Address Breakpoint
    dialog. Alternatively, use the Set button to set the breakpoint without
    dismissing the Address Breakpoint dialog.
    5. 




[Related Concepts]

Breakpoints



Related Tasks

Setting multiple breakpoints

Modifying breakpoint properties

Enabling and disabling breakpoints

Deleting a breakpoint

Viewing set breakpoints





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Skipping over sections of a program





Skipping over sections of a program   



You can skip over sections of code to avoid executing certain statements or to move to
a position that certain statements can be executed again.



To skip over a section of code:
 


    
  
  1. Ensure the Source pane is set to source view. To set the Source pane to source view,
    select Source > Source View from the menu bar.
    2. 
  
  2. Make sure the line to jump to is visible in the Source pane by using the scroll bar or
    cursor keys to locate the line.
    3. 
  
  3. Jump to the line by doing one of the following:
      
      
    • Right-click on the line and select Jump To Location from the pop-up
        menu.
      • 
      
    • Click on the line to select it, then select Debug > Jump To Location
        from the menu bar.
      • 
    
    
  
    4. 




Using Jump to Location can cause unpredictable results if you jump outside the current
function, jump over code that has side-effects (for example, calls to function whose
results are assigned to variables, or function that change the contents of variables
passed by reference), or jump into the middle of a block such as a for
loop.
 


ngrelt.gif (466 bytes)

Running a program






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Setting environment variables for the debugger





Setting environment variables for the debugger
 


The debugger user interface running on the workstation uses certain environment
variables to determine the dominant language, the host files where the source files are
found, and so on.



You may want to set environment variables for the debug engine and Distributed
Debugger. You can set the environment variables based on your operating system. For
instructions on setting environment variables refer to your operating system manuals.



ngrelr.gif (548 bytes)

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)DER_DBG_CASESENSITIVE

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)DER_DBG_LOCAL_PATH

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)DER_DBG_NUMBEROFELEMENTS

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)DER_DBG_OVERRIDE

DER_DBG_PATH

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)DER_DBG_TAB

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)DER_DBG_TABGRID

INCLUDE

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes) ngos2.gif (402 bytes) LIBPATH

PATH







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Starting the debugger for local debugging (AIX and Windows only)






Starting the debugger for local debugging
 


To start debugging a program locally from the command line, issue the idebug
command with local debug parameters at a command line prompt.



If you issue the idebug command without any options, the debugger will
prompt you for the required information in the Load Program dialog.
 


Once the debugger user interface is running, you can debug other programs using the
same debugger session by selecting File > Load Program from the main
menubar.
 


ngrelr.gif (548 bytes)

idebug command





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Starting the debugger for remote debugging (AIX and Windows only)






Starting the debugger for remote debugging 
 


The debugger allows you to run the debugger user interface and the debug engine on
separate machines. These separate machines can be running different operating systems.
When you start the debugger for remote debugging, you first start a debug engine daemon.
This daemon waits for a connection from the debugger user interface. Once a connection is
established, you can begin to debug your program.
 


To start debugging a remote program from the
command line:
 


    
  
  1. On the remote system, start the debug engine daemon
    with the irmtdbgc command at a command line prompt. If you issue this command
    without any parameters, you will be prompted for required information in the Load Program
    dialog on the local system. For information on irmtdbgc command parameters,
    see the related topic below.
    2. 
  
  2. On the local system, start the debugger user interface with the idebug
    command using the remote debug parameters at a command line prompt. You must specify the -qhost
    parameter and the -qlang parameter for the language you are debugging. For
    information on the idebug command parameters, see the related topic below.
    3. 




Tip: The debug engine is
terminated if the debugger cannot load the program you want to debug. Also, the debug
engine is terminated when the program you are debugging runs to completion or is
terminated manually. To prevent the debug engine from being terminated in these
situations, use the -qsession=multi option of the irmtdbgc
command.
 


ngrelr.gif (548 bytes)

ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)irmtdbgc command

idebug command






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Writing a program for debugging





Writing a program for debugging



You can make your programs easier to debug by following these simple guidelines:
 


    
  
  • Do not hand-tune your source code for performance until you have fully debugged and
    tested the untuned version. Hand-tuning may make the logic of your code harder to
    understand.
    • 
  
  • Where possible, do not put multiple statements on a single line, because some debugger
    features operate on a line basis. For example, you cannot step over or set line
    breakpoints on more than one statement on the same line.
    • 
  
  • Assign intermediate expression values to temporary variables to make it easier to verify
    intermediate results.
    • 




To debug your programs at the level of source code statements, you must specify the
compiler options that generate debug information. In some cases you must specify options
that enable the debugger to work properly with your code.
 




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ע:  ޸ıļԻ򲢲һµԴڻıڵԵĿִгûļûȻöϵ㣬вҿԳƶǰСȻԳΪ뵱ǰĿļصģ
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ƣ  ngaix.gif (1051 bytes)ngwin.gif (1069 bytes)
öԻ AIX  Windows



ʹѡԴļԻΪûѡȷԴļһԴļڲͬλãָöԻ



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kn'$:T!7.:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/hgr1.htmmubp$

   The C Language



   32-bit to 64-bit Migration Considerations



   Operating System Migration Considerations



   Preprocessor Directives and Related Information



   Compiling



   Parallel Processing Facilities



   Debug Functions



   Built-in Functions for PowerPC



   Implementation Dependencies



   C for AIX and XL C Compatibility



   National Language Support



   C for AIX Files



   ASCII Character Set



   Debugger References


      
rong>
k^&($:V!7.:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/hgr10.htmubp$

   The C Language


 
   Basic Data Types


  
   char


  
   float, double


  
   int, long, short


  
   enum


  
   void


 
   Derived Data Types


 
   Data Type Qualifiers


 
   Data Storage Classes


 
   Expression Operators


 
   Arithmetic Conversions


 
   Functions


 
   Program Statement Keywords


 
   Statement Labels


 
   Statement Blocks


 
   C Programming Character Set


 
   Escape Sequences for Non-Printable Characters


 
   Reserved Keywords


 
   Differences Between C Language Levels


 
   Implementation-Defined Behavior



   32-bit to 64-bit Migration Considerations



   Operating System Migration Considerations



   Preprocessor Directives and Related Information



   Compiling



   Parallel Processing Facilities



   Debug Functions



   Built-in Functions for PowerPC



   Implementation Dependencies



   C for AIX and XL C Compatibility



   National Language Support



   C for AIX Files



   ASCII Character Set



   Debugger References


      
borde
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 )$:V!7.:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/hgr11.htmubp$

   The C Language


 
   Basic Data Types


 
   Derived Data Types


  
   Arrays


  
   Pointers


  
   struct (Structures)


  
   union (Unions)


  
   Incomplete Types


 
   Data Type Qualifiers


 
   Data Storage Classes


 
   Expression Operators


 
   Arithmetic Conversions


 
   Functions


 
   Program Statement Keywords


 
   Statement Labels


 
   Statement Blocks


 
   C Programming Character Set


 
   Escape Sequences for Non-Printable Characters


 
   Reserved Keywords


 
   Differences Between C Language Levels


 
   Implementation-Defined Behavior



   32-bit to 64-bit Migration Considerations



   Operating System Migration Considerations



   Preprocessor Directives and Related Information



   Compiling



   Parallel Processing Facilities



   Debug Functions



   Built-in Functions for PowerPC



   Implementation Dependencies



   C for AIX and XL C Compatibility



   National Language Support



   C for AIX Files



   ASCII Character Set



   Debugger References


      

k^,*$:V!7.:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/hgr12.htmubp$

   The C Language


 
   Basic Data Types


 
   Derived Data Types


 
   Data Type Qualifiers


 
   Data Storage Classes


  
   auto


  
   extern


  
   register


  
   static


  
   typedef


 
   Expression Operators


 
   Arithmetic Conversions


 
   Functions


 
   Program Statement Keywords


 
   Statement Labels


 
   Statement Blocks


 
   C Programming Character Set


 
   Escape Sequences for Non-Printable Characters


 
   Reserved Keywords


 
   Differences Between C Language Levels


 
   Implementation-Defined Behavior



   32-bit to 64-bit Migration Considerations



   Operating System Migration Considerations



   Preprocessor Directives and Related Information



   Compiling



   Parallel Processing Facilities



   Debug Functions



   Built-in Functions for PowerPC



   Implementation Dependencies



   C for AIX and XL C Compatibility



   National Language Support



   C for AIX Files



   ASCII Character Set



   Debugger References


      

k>c+$:V!7.:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/hgr13.htmubp$

   The C Language


 
   Basic Data Types


 
   Derived Data Types


 
   Data Type Qualifiers


 
   Data Storage Classes


 
   Expression Operators


  
   Operator Precedence and Associativity Table


  
   Primary Operators


  
   Unary Operators


  
   Binary Operators


  
   Conditional Operator


  
   Assignment Operators


  
   Comma Operator


 
   Arithmetic Conversions


 
   Functions


 
   Program Statement Keywords


 
   Statement Labels


 
   Statement Blocks


 
   C Programming Character Set


 
   Escape Sequences for Non-Printable Characters


 
   Reserved Keywords


 
   Differences Between C Language Levels


 
   Implementation-Defined Behavior



   32-bit to 64-bit Migration Considerations



   Operating System Migration Considerations



   Preprocessor Directives and Related Information



   Compiling



   Parallel Processing Facilities



   Debug Functions



   Built-in Functions for PowerPC



   Implementation Dependencies



   C for AIX and XL C Compatibility



   National Language Support



   C for AIX Files



   ASCII Character Set



   Debugger References


      

k(,$:V!7.:#./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/hgr14.htmubp$

   The C Language


 
   Basic Data Types


 
   Derived Data Types


 
   Data Type Qualifiers


 
   Data Storage Classes


 
   Expression Operators


 
   Arithmetic Conversions


 
   Functions


  
   Declarations


  
   Definitions


  
   main() Function


 
   Program Statement Keywords


 
   Statement Labels


 
   Statement Blocks


 
   C Programming Character Set


 
   Escape Sequences for Non-Printable Characters


 
   Reserved Keywords


 
   Differences Between C Language Levels


 
   Implementation-Defined Behavior



   32-bit to 64-bit Migration Considerations



   Operating System Migration Considerations



   Preprocessor Directives and Related Information



   Compiling



   Parallel Processing Facilities



   Debug Functions



   Built-in Functions for PowerPC



   Implementation Dependencies



   C for AIX and XL C Compatibility



   National Language Support



   C for AIX Files



   ASCII Character Set



   Debugger References


      
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kb.$N:V!7.:#N./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/hgr16.htmubp $

   The C Language


 
   Basic Data Types


 
   Derived Data Types


 
   Data Type Qualifiers


 
   Data Storage Classes


 
   Expression Operators


 
   Arithmetic Conversions


 
   Functions


 
   Program Statement Keywords


 
   Statement Labels


 
   Statement Blocks


 
   C Programming Character Set


 
   Escape Sequences for Non-Printable Characters


 
   Reserved Keywords


 
   Differences Between C Language Levels


  
   Conflicts Between extended C and Other Levels


  
   Extensions to RT C Provided by extended C


  
   Exceptions to ansi C Addressed by classic C


  
   saal2 C Deviations from SAA Level 2 C


  
   Arithmetic Conversions for extended Level C


  
   Summary of C Language Level Conflicts


 
   Implementation-Defined Behavior



   32-bit to 64-bit Migration Considerations



   Operating System Migration Considerations



   Preprocessor Directives and Related Information



   Compiling



   Parallel Processing Facilities



   Debug Functions



   Built-in Functions for PowerPC



   Implementation Dependencies



   C for AIX and XL C Compatibility



   National Language Support



   C for AIX Files



   ASCII Character Set



   Debugger References


      
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k#0$:V!7.:#
./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/hgr18.htmubp $

   The C Language



   32-bit to 64-bit Migration Considerations



   Operating System Migration Considerations



   Preprocessor Directives and Related Information



   Compiling


 
   Compiler Options


  
   Overview


  
   Resolving Conflicting Compiler Options


  
   List of Compiler Options and Their Defaults


 
   Compiler Messages and Problem Solving



   Parallel Processing Facilities



   Debug Functions



   Built-in Functions for PowerPC



   Implementation Dependencies



   C for AIX and XL C Compatibility



   National Language Support



   C for AIX Files



   ASCII Character Set



   Debugger References


      

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   Compiling and Linking



   Tuning Your Programs



   Using the C for AIX Compiler with Other Programming Languages



   Debugging Your Program


      

knJD$	:T!7/:#&	./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/hgt10.htmmbp$

   Compiling and Linking



   Tuning Your Programs



   Using the C for AIX Compiler with Other Programming Languages



   Debugging Your Program


 
   Establishing a Debugging Environment


  
   Setting Environment Variables for the Debugger


 
   Preparing a Program for Debugging


 
   Starting the Debugger


 
   Working With Breakpoints


 
   Controlling Program Execution


 
   Inspecting Data


      
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   Compiling and Linking



   Tuning Your Programs



   Using the C for AIX Compiler with Other Programming Languages



   Debugging Your Program


 
   Establishing a Debugging Environment


 
   Preparing a Program for Debugging


  
   Writing a Program for Debugging


  
   Compiling a Program for Debugging


 
   Starting the Debugger


 
   Working With Breakpoints


 
   Controlling Program Execution


 
   Inspecting Data


      
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./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/hgt12.htmmbp$

   Compiling and Linking



   Tuning Your Programs



   Using the C for AIX Compiler with Other Programming Languages



   Debugging Your Program


 
   Establishing a Debugging Environment


 
   Preparing a Program for Debugging


 
   Starting the Debugger


  
   Starting the Debugger for Local Debugging


  
   Starting the Debugger for Remote Debugging


  
   Starting the Debugger Interface Daemon


  
   Attaching to a Local Running Process


  
   Attaching to a Remote Running Process


 
   Working With Breakpoints


 
   Controlling Program Execution


 
   Inspecting Data


      
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   Compiling and Linking



   Tuning Your Programs



   Using the C for AIX Compiler with Other Programming Languages



   Debugging Your Program


 
   Establishing a Debugging Environment


 
   Preparing a Program for Debugging


 
   Starting the Debugger


 
   Working With Breakpoints


  
   Setting Breakpoints


  
   Viewing Set Breakpoints


  
   Modifying Breakpoint Properties


  
   Enabling and Disabling Breakpoints


  
   Deleting a Breakpoint


 
   Controlling Program Execution


 
   Inspecting Data


      
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./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/hgt14.htmmbp$

   Compiling and Linking



   Tuning Your Programs



   Using the C for AIX Compiler with Other Programming Languages



   Debugging Your Program


 
   Establishing a Debugging Environment


 
   Preparing a Program for Debugging


 
   Starting the Debugger


 
   Working With Breakpoints


 
   Controlling Program Execution


  
   Setting Breakpoints


  
   Running a Program


  
   Stepping Through a Program


  
   Skipping over Sections of a program


  
   Halting Execution of a Program


  
   Restarting a Program


 
   Inspecting Data


      
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./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/hgt15.htmmbp$

   Compiling and Linking



   Tuning Your Programs



   Using the C for AIX Compiler with Other Programming Languages



   Debugging Your Program


 
   Establishing a Debugging Environment


 
   Preparing a Program for Debugging


 
   Starting the Debugger


 
   Working With Breakpoints


 
   Controlling Program Execution


 
   Inspecting Data


  
   Inspecting Variables


  
   Inspecting Registers


  
   Inspecting Storage


  
   Enabling and Disabling a Monitored Expression


  
   Enabling Hover Help for Variables


  
   Changing the Representation of Monitor Contents


      
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   Compiling and Linking


 
   Setting Up the C for AIX Compilation Environment


 
   Invoking the C for AIX Compiler


 
   Invoking the Linkage Editor


 
   Specifying Compiler Options


 
   Specifying Path Names for Include Files



   Tuning Your Programs



   Using the C for AIX Compiler with Other Programming Languages



   Debugging Your Program


      

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   Compiling and Linking



   Tuning Your Programs


 
   Using Heap Memory in Programs


 
   Writing Optimized Program Source Code


 
   Creating and Using Precompiled Headers


 
   Using Pragmas to Control Parallel Processing


 
   Minimizing the Size of Object Files



   Using the C for AIX Compiler with Other Programming Languages



   Debugging Your Program


      

kQ$_:T!7/:#8_./usr/vac/html/zh_CN/doc/hgt4.htmmbp$

   Compiling and Linking



   Tuning Your Programs



   Using the C for AIX Compiler with Other Programming Languages


 
   Interlanguage Calling Conventions


 
   Corresponding Data Types


 
   Using the Subroutine Linkage Conventions in Interlanguage Calls


 
   Sample Program: C Calling Fortran



   Debugging Your Program


      
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   Compiling and Linking



   Tuning Your Programs



   Using the C for AIX Compiler with Other Programming Languages



   Debugging Your Program


 
   Establishing a Debugging Environment


 
   Preparing a Program for Debugging


 
   Starting the Debugger


 
   Working With Breakpoints


 
   Controlling Program Execution


 
   Inspecting Data


      
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   Compiling and Linking


 
   Setting Up the C for AIX Compilation Environment


 
   Invoking the C for AIX Compiler


 
   Invoking the Linkage Editor


 
   Specifying Compiler Options


  
   On the Command Line


  
   In Your Program Source File


  
   In a Configuration File


  
   For Architecture-Specific, 32- or 64-bit
Compilation


  
   Using Pragmas to Control Parallel Processing


 
   Specifying Path Names for Include Files



   Tuning Your Programs



   Using the C for AIX Compiler with Other Programming Languages



   Debugging Your Program


      
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   Compiling and Linking



   Tuning Your Programs


 
   Using Heap Memory in Programs


  
   Creating and Using a Fixed-Size Heap


  
   Creating and Using an Expandable Heap


  
   Changing the Default Heap Used in a Program


  
   Debugging Problems with Heap Memory


 
   Writing Optimized Program Source Code


 
   Creating and Using Precompiled Headers


 
   Using Pragmas to Control Parallel Processing


 
   Minimizing the Size of Object Files



   Using the C for AIX Compiler with Other Programming Languages



   Debugging Your Program


      
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