    58

    (summary of research by Shari Waldstein and Steven Manuck originally published

    in Psychological Bulletin 110: 451-468).

    61. Melvin Konner, The Tangled Wing: Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit, p.

    119.

    62. Robert M. Sapolsky, "Lessons of the Serengeti," The Sciences, May/June, 1988,

    p. 42.

    63. In one study, psychologist John Paul Scott was actually able to take advantage

    of this principle to produce mice who consistently won battles even against

    opponents who towered over them.  As David Barash describes it in his book The

    Hare and the Tortoise, Scott exposed the little contenders "to a graded series of

    fights which were all 'fixed' to insure its [the privileged rat's] victory."  After a

    non-stop string of wins, the rodent wrestler's sense of confidence made him

    unbeatable. (David P. Barash, The Hare and The Tortoise: Culture, Biology and

    Human Nature, Penguin Books, 1987, p. 154.)  See also Edward O. Wilson,

    Sociobiology, p. 123.

    64. "It is to the advantage of a chicken to live in a stable hierarchy.  Members of

    flocks kept in disorder by experimental replacements eat less food, lose more

    weight when their diet is restricted, and lay fewer eggs."  Edward O. Wilson,

    Sociobiology, p. 139.  See also David McFarland, ed., The Oxford Companion to

    Animal Behavior, p. 12.

    65. See the section on "Intergroup Dominance" in Edward O. Wilson's Sociobiology,

    p. 144.

    66. Pecking order relationships between langur troops in the wild can be as complex

    as the relations between modern nations.  For a description of "dominance

    structure among troops" of langurs, see Suzanne Ripley,  "Intertroop Encounters

    Among Ceylon Gray Langurs (Presbytis entellus)," in Stuart A. Altmann ed., Social

    Communication Among Primates, pp. 237-254, especially p. 248.

    67. Sociobiology, E.O. Wilson,  p. 120.

    68. Caesar, The Conquest of Gaul, translated by S.A. Handford, Penguin Books,

    Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England, 1982, pp. 28-42.

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